Abstract
Since the sixteenth century, the Balkans had always been a turbulent and a long-contested area between the Habsburg Monarchy and the Ottoman Empire in claiming lands. Moreover, it was a melting pot of diverse ethnicities that had their own cultural determinants and semiotics. The Balkans served as an international crossroad, also being a geographical advantage that facilitated trade from the south of the peninsula to central Europe. In Romania and Bulgaria, the issue of female economic input is ignored in the debate of women’s studies, or scantly mentioned. Social norms dictated that women’ position was marginal as only men were the protagonists in family business. However, despite their auxiliary role in entrepreneurship, female contribution was significant in economic agency as women showed skill and expertise.
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Notes
- 1.
Stoianovich, T., (1960), ‘The Conquering Balkan Orthodox Merchant’, The Journal of Economic History, vol. 20, (234–313).
- 2.
For more studies on the same field, see: Tsourka-Papastathi, D., (1989), Syllogikotita kai Aftonomia stis Oikonomikes Syssomatoseis: He Helleniki kompania tou Simbiou Transylvanias, 1636–1848, [Collective Action and Autonomy in Economic Associations: The Greek Merchant Company of Sibium in Transylvania, 1636–1848], Ph.D. Dissertation, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki: Seirinidou, V., (2009), ‘Valkanioi Emporoi stin Hambsvourgiki Monarchia (18os-mesa 19ou aiona). Ethnotikes taftotites kai erevnitikes amichanies’, [Balkan Merchants in the Habsburg Monarchy (eighteenth century to mid-nineteenth century). Ethnic Identities and Difficulties of Research], in Maria, A., Stasinopoulou, Maria-Christina Chatziioannou (eds.), Tetradia Ergasias 28, (published by) Kentro Hellenikon Erevnon, Ethniko Idryma Erevnon, Athens: Kontogeorgis, D., (2012), He Helleniki Diaspora sti Roumania: He periptosi tis Hellenikis paroikias tis Vrailas (per.1820–1914), [Greek Diaspora in Romania: The Case Study of the Greek ‘paroikia’ of Braila (c.1820–1914)], Ph.D. Dissertation, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens: Konstantinou, F., (2013), He Oikonomiki parousia ton Hellenon sti Roumania apo ton Crimaiko mechri ton Proto Pagkosmio Polemo, [Greek Economic Presence in Romania from the Crimean War Until the First World War], Ph.D. Dissertation, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.
- 3.
Chirot, D., (ed.), (1989), The Origins of Backwardness in the Eastern Europe: Economics and Politics from the Middle Ages Until the Early Twentieth Century, University of California Press.
- 4.
Following the Karlowitz Peace Treaty (1699) that concluded the Austro-Ottoman War, the area of Transylvania was ceded to the Austro-Hungarian Empire while the Ottomans kept their sovereignty in the province of Banat. The Treaty of Passarowitz (1718) sanctioned the defeat of the Ottomans who lost a number of regions to the north of the Balkans in favor of the Habsburg Monarchy—thus—giving up their claims for acquiring more European lands. As a consequence, the Ottomans ceded Belgrade, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Oltenia—a historical province and geographical region in western Walachia—and the castle of Timişoara (Temeswar). The Treaty of Belgrade (1739) ended the hostilities of the Austro-Turkish War (1737–1739) while the Habsburgs ceded to the Ottomans the Kingdom of Serbia with Belgrade, the southern part of the Banat of Timişoara, and northern Bosnia. Oltenia was ceded to Wallachia that was an Ottoman subject, setting—in this way—the demarcation line to the rivers of Sava and Danube. See more on the matter: Miliou, Th., (2017), Koinotites ton Hellenon sta Balkania. Oikistiko, mnimeiako apothema stin periochi tou Vanatou kai tis Transylvanias [Communities of Greeks in the Balkans: ekistic and monumental reserve in Banat and Transylvania regions (Romania)], Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Macedonia, Thessaloniki, p. 246.
- 5.
Roman, N., (2017), ‘Women in Merchant Families, Women in Trade, in Mid-nineteenth Century Romanian Countries’, in: Vintilă-Ghiţulescu, C., (ed.), Women, Consumption and the Circulation of Ideas in South-Eastern Europe, 17th-19th Centuries, Brill, pp. 170–173.
- 6.
For the Greek traders’ families and the case of their wives’ remaining at home, see: Papakonstantinou, K., (2002), Hellenikes emporikes epicheiriseis stin Kentriki Evropi sto b’ miso tou 18ou aiona: He oikogeneia Pondika, [The Greek entrepreneurial activities in Central Europe during the second half of eighteenth century: The Ponsikas family], Ph.D. Dissertation, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, pp. 233–249.
- 7.
Konstantinou, F., (2013), ibid., p. 367.
- 8.
During eighteenth century, the region of Transylvania was under Austrian sovereignty while its political system that dated back to late Middle Ages included three different politically shaped classes and ethnicities. These classes were: The Hungarian noble men, the Seklers, and the Saxons. However, the above political status quo excluded the numerous Romanians—mostly peasants—who were the main inhabitants of the region that did not enjoy any privileges. In 1791 a number of distinguished Romanian scholars along with representatives of the Church, submitted a memorandum to the Emperor Leopold II requesting on behalf of the Romanians of Transylvania to be granted with equal rights with the other ethnicities. In an effort to avoid a clash with the above classes, the Emperor brought the memorandum to the Transylvanian Senate that rejected it. See more in: Mourgeskou, M.L., & Koulouri, Ch., (eds.), (2006), Ethni kai Krati sti Notioanatoliki Evropi [Nations and States in Southeastern Europe], Workbook 2, Thessaloniki, (published by) Kentro gia ti Dimocratia kai ti Symfiliosi sti Notioanatoliki Evropi, (CDRSEE), Thessaloniki, www.cdrsee.org, p. 31.
- 9.
Miliou, Th., (2017), ibid., p. 246.
- 10.
Roman, N., (2017), ‘Women in Merchant Families, Women in Trade, in Mid-nineteenth Century Romanian Countries’, ibid., p. 170.
- 11.
Ibid., p. 171.
- 12.
Lee, R., (ed.), (2011), Commerce and Culture: Nineteenth-Century Business Elites, Ashgate, p. 159.
- 13.
On the Balkan Orthodox merchants in the Habsburg Empire, see: Seirinidou, V., (2009), ‘Balkanioi emporoi,’ ibid.
- 14.
For a thorough study on the matter, see Chap. 2 in the present book.
- 15.
Pakucs, M., (2017–2018), ‘«Τhis is their profession». Greek Merchants in Transylvania and their Networks at the End of the Seventeenth Century’, Cromohs-Cyber Review of Modern Hstoriography 21, (36–54), pp. 39–40.
- 16.
For instance, the Timişoara merchant Naum Toma Makry, a wealthy merchant originating from Kastoria, married his daughter—Iulia—to the son of another merchant from Siatista, a nearby town of Kastoria, named Funduka. In line with the family’s will Iulia Makry inherited assets as well as the house that belonged to Funduka family. See more in: Miliou, T., ibid., p. 250.
- 17.
Papakonstantinou, K., (2002), ibid., p. 115.
- 18.
Buturović, A., & Schick, I., (eds.), (2007), Women in the Ottoman Balkans: Gender, Culture and History, I.B. Tauris, London and New York, p. 217.
- 19.
Roman, N., (2017), ‘Women in Merchant Families, Women in Trade, in Mid-nineteenth Century Romanian Countries’, ibid., p. 173.
- 20.
Băluţă, I., (2015), ‘Women and the Family in the Late Nineteenth-Century Romanian Feminist Press: Defining Alternative Gender Roles’, Journal of Family History, https://doi.org/10.1177/0363199015617474
- 21.
Moring, B., (ed.), (2016), Female Economic Strategies in the Modern World, (Introduction), Routledge, London & New York, pp. 2–9.
- 22.
Buturović, A., & Schick, I., (eds.), (2007), ibid., p. 221.
- 23.
More than 10,000 entrepreneurs of the country were the main taxpayers followed by the class of the lawyers (1300), engineers (150), and bankers (42). Moreover, small shopkeepers, people who ran inns, and those who lent out money to villagers composed the petite bourgeoisie. See more in: Berend, I.T., (2003), History Derailed: Central and Eastern Europe in the Long Nineteenth Century, University of California Press, p. 198.
- 24.
Hiemstra, P.A., (1987), Alexandru D. Xenopol and the Development of Romanian Historiography, Routledge, London & New York, p. 95.
- 25.
Oldson, W.O., (1991), ‘A Providential Anti-Semitism: Nationalism and Polity in Nineteenth-Century Romania’, The American Philosophical Society, v. 193, p. 58.
- 26.
Regarding the sphere in economy, they were granted with the right to work without their husbands’ permission in 1929, see: Aslanbeigui, N., et al. (eds.), (1994), Women in the Age of Economic Transformation: Gender Impact of Reforms in Post-socialist and Developing Countries, Routledge, London & New York, pp. 45–46.
- 27.
Roman, N., (2017), ‘Women in Merchant Families: Women in Trade, in Mid-nineteenth Century Romanian Countries’, ibid., p. 177.
- 28.
Ibid., p. 178.
- 29.
Hitchins, K., (1996), The Romanians, 1774–1866, Clarendon Press, Oxford, p. 107.
- 30.
Roman, N., ibid., p. 182.
- 31.
The traders were also millers, smiths, painters, and tailors who worked on specific orders. See more in: Hitchins, K., (1996), The Romanians…, ibid., p. 96.
- 32.
Direcţia Judeţeană a Archivelor Naţionale Braşov (hereafter DJAN Braşov), Acte Diverse, 47, 354, as quoted in: Roman, N., (2017), ibid., p. 182.
- 33.
Roman, N., (2017), ‘Women in Merchant Families, Women in Trade, in Mid-nineteenth Century Romanian Countries’, ibid., p. 182.
- 34.
Ibid., p. 178.
- 35.
Ibid., p. 182.
- 36.
Ellis, R., (1851), Official Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue of the Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations, vol. III, Spicer Brothers, Wholesale Stationers; W. Glowes and Sons, Printers, London, p. 1393.
- 37.
Ioannides, M., et al. (eds.), (2016), ‘Digital Heritage: Progress in Cultural Heritage: Documentation, Preservation, and Protection’, Proceedings, Part II, 6th International Conference, EuroMed Nicosia, Cyprus, (October 31–November 5), Springer, p. 152.
- 38.
DJAN Braşov, Acte administrativene neinregistrate, 27/1817, as quoted in: Roman, N., (2017), p. 181.
- 39.
Hitchins, K., (1996), The Romanians, 1774–1866, ibid., p. 107.
- 40.
Ibid., p. 98.
- 41.
Roman, N., (2017), ‘Women in Merchant Families, Women in Trade, in Mid-nineteenth Century Romanian Countries’, ibid., p. 182.
- 42.
Miliou, Th., ibid., p. 206.
- 43.
Karathanasis, A., (1996), ‘Despoina- Eirini, Tsourka- Papastathi: He Helleniki emporiki compania tou Sibiou Transylvanias, 1636–1848: Organosi kai Dikaio’, [The Greek trading company of Sibiu, Transylvania 1636–1848. Organization and Law: by Despoina.- Eirini, Tsourka], [Book review], Makedonika 30, (345–349).
- 44.
Roman, N., (2017), ‘Women in Merchant Families, Women in Trade, in Mid-nineteenth Century Romanian Countries’, ibid., p. 182.
- 45.
Columbeanu, S., (1973), ‘Research Prospects in Rumanian Historiography (Wallachia 1770–1830)’, Rumanian Studies. An International Annual of the Humanities and Social Sciences, vol. II, Leiden, E.J. Brill, (131–142), p. 142.
- 46.
Ibid., p. 182.
- 47.
‘Tsoumbros’ in Greek.
- 48.
For Paraschiva’s marriage, her father—I. Boghici—ordered the finest velvet materials and the best golden ornaments from Vienna. See more in: Limona, D., (2016), Negustorii ‘greci’ şi arhivele lor comerciale [The ‘Greek’ merchants and their commercial archives], University Publishing House ‘Alexandru Ioan Cuza’, Iaşi, pp. 101–102.
- 49.
For more on him and his patriotic aspirations, see: Karathanasis, A., (1978), ‘Mia Helleniki Martyria apo ti Vienni gia tis protes syllipseis ton synergaton tou Riga tou Velestinli’, [A Greek testimony from Vienna on the first arrests of Rigas Velestinlis’ followers], Makedonika, vol. V., (92–102), p. 93, ejournals.publishing.ekt.gr
- 50.
For example, Sevastia Nicolau (1824–1879), daughter of a rich merchant in Braşov, was an active member of the Romanian women’s association in Braşov. Her mother, Maria Nicolau, served as the first president of the same association. See more in: Păltineanu, O.S., (2012), Calling the Nation. Romanian Nationalism in a Local Context: Braşov During the Dual Monarchy, Ph.D. Dissertation, Central European University, Budapest, Hungary, pp. 62, 72.
- 51.
In 1837, the overall bulk of exports in agricultural products grew from 230,000 steelyards to 1,837,000 in 1847. The increase was eight times higher in a decade. See more in: Floros, K., (2013), He oikonomiki parousia ton Hellenon sti Roumania apo ton Krimaiko mecrhi ton Proto Pagkosmio Polemo [Greek Economic Presence in Romania from the Crimean Until the First World War], PhD Dissertation, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, p. 116.
- 52.
Miliou, Th., (2017), ibid., pp. 230–231.
- 53.
DJAN Braşov, Actele Magistratului, 1582/1789 and 1657/1792, as quoted in: Roman, N., (2017), ‘Women in Merchant Families, Women in Trade, in Mid-nineteenth Century Romanian Countries’, ibid., p. 183.
- 54.
Ibid., p. 183.
- 55.
Ibid., pp. 183–184.
- 56.
As a result, the traders of Brăila had to go to the neighboring town of Galaţi where there was a banking network system: See more in: Kontogeorgis, D., (2012), He Helleniki Diaspora sti Roumania, ibid., p. 347.
- 57.
Roman, N., (2017), ‘Women in Merchant Families, Women in Trade, in Mid-nineteenth Century Romanian Countries’, ibid., p. 184.
- 58.
Ulianova, G., (2009), Female Entrepreneurs in Nineteenth-Century Russia, Pickering & Chatto (publishers Ltd), n.p.
- 59.
Papakonstantinou, K., (2002), ibid., p. 246.
- 60.
Roman, N., (2017), ‘Women in Merchant Families, Women in Trade, in Mid-nineteenth Century Romanian Countries’, ibid., p. 185.
- 61.
Papakonstantinou, K., (2002), ibid., p. 248.
- 62.
On marriage strategies in eighteenth-century Romania, see: Vintilă-Ghiţulescu, C., (2009), ‘Marriage Strategies, Women’s Dowries and Conflicts Between Relatives in Romanian Society (eighteenth century)’, in: Duraes, M., et al. (eds.), The Transmission of Well-Being: Gendered Marriage Strategies and Inheritance System in Europe (seventeenth-twentieth centuries). Peter Lang, Bern, pp. 123–142.
- 63.
Roman, N., (2017), ‘Women in Merchant Families, Women in Trade, in Mid-nineteenth Century Romanian Countries’, ibid., p. 186.
- 64.
Ibid., p. 195.
- 65.
Nestorova, T., (1996), ‘Between tradition and modernity: Bulgarian women during the development of modern statehood and society, 1878–1945’, Women’s History Review, 5:4, Taylor & Francis, (513–524), p. 516.
- 66.
Ibid., p. 517.
- 67.
Danova, N., (ed.), (2004), Archeio tou Konstantin Georgiev Fotinov, Helleniki allilografia, Anagnosi, metafrasi sta voulgarika, scholia kai eisagogi Nadia Danova, [The Archive of Konstantin Georgiev Fotinov, Correspondence in Greek, Compilation, Translation in the Bulgarian language, Comments and Introduction by Nadia Danova], Guttenberg (publishers), V.A. Sofia, (Preface), pp. 24–42.
- 68.
Davidova, E., (2013), Balkan Transitions to Modernity and Nation – States: Through the Eyes of Three Generations of Merchants (1780s–1890s), Leiden, E.J. Brill, p. 102.
- 69.
Ianeva, S., (2016), ‘Female Actors, Producers and Money Makers in Ottoman Public Space: The Case of the Late Ottoman Balkans’, In: Boyar, E., & Fleet, K., (eds.), Ottoman Women in Public Space, Leiden, E.J. Brill, p. 66.
- 70.
Ibid.
- 71.
Ibid., p. 66.
- 72.
Danova, N. (ed.), (2004), Archeio tou Konstantin Georgiev Fotinov, ibid., Letter No. 1, July 3rd, 1846, pp. 43–44.
- 73.
Ianeva, S., (2016), ‘Female Actors, Producers and Money Makers in Ottoman Public Space, ibid., p. 67.
- 74.
Ibid., p. 67.
- 75.
Danova, N., (ed.), (2004), Archeio tou Konstantin Georgiev Fotinov, ibid., (Letter No. 262, March 21st, 1846, Letter No. 263, May 9th, 1846, Letter No. 264, July 25th, 1846), pp. 555–558.
- 76.
Ibid.
- 77.
Davidova, E., (2012), ‘«Graecomans» into Bulgarians: Shifting Perceptions of Greek–Bulgarian Interethnic Marriages in the Nineteenth Century’, Balkanologie: Revue d’ études pluradisciplinaires, vol. XI: 1–2.
- 78.
Ianeva, S., ibid., p. 67.
- 79.
Ibid.
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Thanailaki, P. (2021). Gendered Prejudices and the Economic Setting in Romania and Bulgaria. In: Gendered Stereotypes and Female Entrepreneurship in Southern Europe, 1700-1900. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66234-9_8
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