Female Entrepreneurship and Guilds in Southern Europe

Thanailaki, Polly

doi:10.1007/978-3-030-66234-9_7

Polly Thanailaki²

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Abstract

Increasing attention has recently been given by feminist historians in relation to women’s presence in the economic setting as female self-employment and trading practices have formed recently the main topics for discussion. Female economic agency and artisanal guilds replaced the old traditional pattern that limited female sphere of activities only to the household. Women went out and worked. They were engaged in craftsmanship and they entered guilds, or they were organized in collective efforts and family consortiums. Their sound contribution—though silent—in the family finances became a real fact despite social prejudices encountered which often impeded economic progress.

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Notes

1.
As referred in the previous chapters of the present book, France is geographically located in both north and south of Europe showing characteristics in female entrepreneurship and guilds that resemble to those of the southern and south-eastern European areas. Therefore, I found it useful to compare and contrast its case with Greece as well as with Italy.
2.
Ogilvie, S., (2011), Institutions and European Trade: Merchant Guilds, 1000–1800, Cambridge University Press, p. 20.
3.
Levasseur, E., (1901), Histoire des classes ouvrières et de l’ industrie en France avant 1789, (2 vols), A. Rousseau Publishers, Paris.
4.
Coornaert, E., (1968), Les corporations en France avant 1789, Les Editions ouvrières, Paris.
5.
Olivier-Martin, F., (1938), L’Organisation corporative de la France d’ Ancien Régime, libtrairie du Recueil, Sirey, Paris.
6.
Martin Saint-Léon, E., (1922), Histoire des corporations de métiers. Depuis leurs origins jusqu’à leur suppression en 1791, Librairie Felix Alcan, Paris.
7.
Coffin, J.G., (1994), ‘Gender and the Guild Order: The Garment Trades in Eighteenth-Century Paris’, The Journal of Economic History, 54:4, (768–793).
8.
Crowston, C., (2008), ‘Women, Gender, and Guilds in Early Modern Europe: An Overview of Research’, International Review of Social History, 53, (Supplement), (19–44).
9.
Sewell, W., (1985), Structure and Mobility: The Men and Women of Marseille, 1820–1870, Cambridge and Paris: Cambridge University Press and Editions de la Maison des sciences de l’homme.
10.
Vakalopoulos, K.A., (1978), ‘Christianikes Synoikies, Syntechnies kai epaggelmata tis Thessalonikis sta mesa tou 19ou aiona’, [The Christian Neighborhoods, Guilds, and Trades in Mid-nineteenth Century-Thessaloniki], Makedonika (18), (103–142).
11.
Papageorgiou, G., (1982) Oi Syntechnies sta Giannena kata ton 19o kai tis arches tou 20ou aiona (Arches 19ou aiona eos 1912), [The Guilds in Ioannina during nineteenth to early twentieth century. (Beginning of nineteenth century until 1912)], Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Ioannina.
12.
Ierapetritis, D.G., (2006), He Symvoli tis topikis Organosis ton Mastichochorion Chiou sti diacheirisi tou chorou kata tin period 1566–1866 tis Othomanikis Kyriarcheias, [The effect of local administration of the mastic villages of Chios on spatial management during the Ottoman occupation 1566–1866], Ph.D. Dissertation, University of the Aegean, Mytelene.
13.
Ierapetritis, D.G., (2006), ibid., p. 45.
14.
Mpakalis, T., (2011), Ho rolos ton syntechnion stin Hellada kai he syneisfora tous stin anaptyksi kai antagonistikotita tis choras kai ton epicheiriseon, [The role of the guilds in Greece and their contribution to the growth and competitiveness of the country and of the enterprises], Graduate Paper, Technologiko Ekpaideutiko Idryma Kavalas (TEI), Kavala, p. 7.
15.
Hantzimichali, A., (1953), ‘Morfes apo ti somateiaki organosi ton Hellenon stin Othomaniki Aftokratoria: Oi syntechnies-Ta Isnafia’, [Aspects from the Unions’ Organization of the Greeks in the Ottoman Empire: The Guilds-The Isnafia] L’ Hellenisme Contemporain, Athens, http://www.myriobiblos.gr/texts/greek/hantzimichali_syntechnies.html
16.
The ‘Brotherhoods’ and the ‘guilds’ differed. The ‘guilds’ operated on a closely knit operational structure that consisted of the board, the members’ registers, and its charter. The board was also in charge of setting and inspecting the apprenticeship period during which the trainee was trained. After the training period he was assessed in order to become a journeyman and be admitted to the guild. To the contrary, the ‘Brotherhood’ operated on the basis of the customary law, only. See more in: Alevras, G., (2017), Ho Kozanitis emporos konstantinos D. Takiatzis (1812–1896). Oikonomikes drastiriotites tou tin period 1840–1855 symfona me anekdota eggrafa apo to Archeio Takiatzi, [The merchant from Kozani named Konstantinos D. Takiatzis (1812–1896). His Economic activities during the period 1840–1855 based on unpublished documents drawn from Takiatzis Archive], (published by) Etaireia Dytikomakedonikon Meleton, Kozani, p. 71, Footnote 127.
17.
Hantzimichali, A., ibid.
18.
On the matter, see the classic work of Stoianovich, Tr., (1960), ‘The Conquering Balkan Orthodox Merchant’, Journal of Economic History, v. 20, (243–313).
19.
In the artisans’ workshops that were members of a ‘brotherhood’ or of a ‘guild’, the internal hierarchy was the same. The apprentice was ranked in the lowest position and was called tsiraki, the word stemming from the Turkish term çirak. In the middle position stood the assistant to the head artisan who was called kalfas, and in the upper echelon stood the mastoras being the head craftsman and owner of the workshop. See: Alevras, G., Ho Kozanitis emporos konstantinos D. Takiatzis (1812–1896), ibid., p. 71, Footnote 128.
20.
Hantzimichali, A., ibid.
21.
Varsamidis, A., (2004), Oikonomikos Vios kai Epaggelmatiki Kinisi tis periochis Boiou (19os-arches 20ou aiona), [Economic Life and Trading Activities of the Boion Region (Nineteenth-Early Twentieth Century)] Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Ioannina, p. 279, Footnote 2.
22.
For rich bibliography on the topic in the early nineteenth century-guilds in Greece, see: Arnaoutoglou, El., (2002), ‘He idea apokatastaseos ton synafion…–Enas diorganismos synafion tou 1831’, [The idea of organizing guilds… A manual on organizing guilds of the year 1831], Epetiris tou Kentrou Erevnis tis Istorias tou Ellinikou Dikaiou (E.K.E.I.E.D), (36), ejournas.lib.auth.gr, pp. 205–281.
23.
Ierapetritis, D.G., (2017), ‘Guilds and Cooperative Community Networks in the Eastern Mediterranean: Evidence from Greece Under Ottoman Occupation’, Journal of the Knowledge Economy, Springer, (1–19).
24.
Ierapetritis, D.G., He Symvoli, ibid., p. 46.
25.
Giannouchou, E., (2017) Oikonomiki kai koinoniki katastasi sti Dytiki Thessalia apo ta teli tou 18ou aiona os to 1821, [The economic and social situation in western Thessaly from the turn of eighteenth century to 1821], Master thesis, University of Ioannina, pp. 61–62.
26.
Giannouchou, E., ibid., pp. 61–62.
27.
Ibid., p. 61.
28.
On the patron saint of each guild, see: Kallinderis, M., (1973), Hai syntechniai kai he Ekklisia epi Tourkokratias, [The Guilds and the Church During the Period Under the Ottoman Rule] Ekdoseis Apostolikis Diakonias (publishers), Athens.
29.
Bambounis, Ch. & Mouzakis, S., (2009), ‘Christianikes Koinotites kai adelfotites sti M. Asia stis arches tou 20ou aiona. Apo ton kodika Alikarnassou–Boudroum’, [The Christian Communities and Brotherhoods in Asia Minor in Early Twentieth Century. Based on Alikarnassos–Boudroum codex], Conference Proceedings, 4th Symposium of the ‘Kentro Spoudis kai Anadeiksis Mikrasiatikou Politismou’, (KE.MI.PO), (27–29 November), (49–76).
30.
Though later there was observed a change. Crowston, C., ibid., p. 26.
31.
Aminzade, R., (1981), Class, Politics and Early Industrial Capitalism. A Study of Mid-nineteenth Century Toulouse, France, State University of New York Press, New York, p. 70.
32.
Ibid., p. 13.
33.
Aminzade, R, ibid., p. 70.
34.
See more in: Aggelomati-Tsougkaraki, E., (1990), ‘Symvoli stin historia tis oikonomikis, koinonikis kai ekpaideutikis zois tis Larisas kata tin Tourkokratia’, [Contribution to the history of financial, social, and educational life in Larisa during the period of the Ottoman rule], Mesaionika kai Nea Hellenika, (3), (255–332), p. 268.
35.
Giannouchou, E., ibid., p. 61.
36.
Pissa, H., (2006), He Nomiki Thesi tis Gynaikas tin Periodo tis Tourkokratias stin periochi tis Thessalias, [The legal status of women in the Ottoman period in the area of Thessaly], Graduate Paper, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, p. 44.
37.
Pissa, H., ibid., p. 45.
38.
Papageorgiou, G., (1986), He Mathiteia sta epaggelmata (16os–20os ai.), [The Apprenticeship in Trades], (published by) Historiko Archeio Hellenikis Neolaias, Athens, p. 14.
39.
Petropoulos, D.A., (1943–1944), ‘Ethima Synergasias kai Allilovoitheias tou Hellenikou Laou’, [Customs of cooperation and mutual aid of the Greek people], Epetiris Laografikou Archeiou, vols. 5 & 6, p. 66.
40.
Ibid., p. 67.
41.
Megas, G.A., (1939), ‘Zitimata Laografias’, [Folklore Themes], Epetiris Laografikou Archeiou, v1, (110–120), p. 116.
42.
The old name of Trikala.
43.
See the translated charter from the Greek language into English in: Hunt, M., (2014), Women in Eighteenth-Century Europe, Routledge, London and New York, p. 180.
44.
See the original Greek text in: Pavlides, G., (1965), ‘Selides apo tin Thessalikin Historian: Ai Epaggelmatikai Organoseis epi Tourkokratias’, [Pages from the History of Thessaly: The Trading Organizations During the Period Under the Turkish Rule], ir.lib.uth.gr/bitstream/handle/11615/25173/article.pdf?sequence=1, pp. 350–351.
45.
Pavlides, G., (1965), ibid., p. 350.
46.
Kalinderis, M., (1973), Ai Syntecniai kai he Ekklisia epi Tourkokratias, [The Guilds and the Church During the Ottoman rule], EkdoseisAnatolikisDiakonias (publishers), Athens, www.myriobiblos.gr/texts/greek/kalinderis_8.html
47.
Pavlides, G., ibid., p. 351.
48.
Laiou, S., (2006–2007), ‘Ta Trikala sta teli tou 17ou aiona me vasi dyo katasticha kefalikou forou’, [The town of Trikala at the end of the seventeenth century on the basis of two Ottoman cizye registers], Mnimon, 28, (9–30), p. 22.
49.
Giannouchou, E., (2017), ibid., p. 60.
50.
Thessaly’s annexation to the Greek territory came about in 1881.
51.
With the exception of that of the soap makers. See, Pissa, H., ibid., p. 45.
52.
Ibid., p. 45, Footnote 218.
53.
One of them made shoes. Pissa, H., ibid., p. 45, Footnote 218.
54.
Ibid., p. 46.
55.
Aggelomati–Tsougkaraki, ibid., p. 287.
56.
Yiangou, A., Kazamias G., et al., (eds), (2016), The Greeks and the British in the Levant, 1800–1960s: Between Empires and Nations, Routledge, London & New York, (n. p).
57.
Papageorgiou, G., (1982) Oi Syntechnies sta Giannena kata ton 19o kai tis arches tou 20ou aiona (Arches 19ou aiona eos 1912), ibid., p. 35.
58.
Papageorgiou, G., Oi Syntechnies…, ibid., p. 368.
59.
Bambounis, Ch. & Mouzakis, S., ibid., p. 19.
60.
Bambounis, Ch. & Mouzakis, S., ibid., p. 19, Footnote 44.
61.
Spanos, K., (1987), ‘Ta onomata ton pantopolon kai ton abatzidon tis Thessalonikis ston Kodika 8 tis Monis «Agios Stephanos» ton Meteoron (1714–1725)’, [The names of the grocers and tailors of Thessaloniki in codex 8 of the Saint Stephan monastery in Meteora, 1714–1725], Makedonika 26, (230–241).
62.
Theodorakakou-Varelidou, P., (2001), ‘«Maniates Petrofaoi»: Hoi syntechnies kai he Organosi Ergasias tous’, [The Maniot ‘Petrofaoi’: Their guilds and labor organization], Applied Research Review, Institute of Pireus, VI:1, (193–201), p. 197.
63.
Ibid., pp. 194–195.
64.
Ibid., p. 199.
65.
Crowston, C., (2008), ‘Women, Gender…’, ibid., p. 26.
66.
Hufton, O., (2003), (Greek edition), Historia ton Gynaikon stin Europi 1500–1800, Nefeli (publishers), Athens, p. 196.
67.
Hufton, O., Historia ton Gynaikon, ibid., p. 197.
68.
Ibid., p. 197.
69.
Aminzade, R., ibid., p. 30.
70.
Hufton, O., Historia…, ibid., p. 199.
71.
Kaplan, S.L., (1984), Provisioning Paris: Merchants and Millers in the Grain and Flour Trade During the Eighteenth Century, Cornell University Press, Ithaca and London, pp. 189, 321–329.
72.
Farr, R.J., (2000), Artisans in Europe 1300–1914: New Approaches to European History, Cambridge University Press, pp. 40–41.
73.
Farr, R.J., ibid., p. 113.
74.
Coffin, J.G., (1994), ‘Gender and the Guild Order’, ibid., p. 773.
75.
During the period between September 1735 and February 1776, of the 2681 masters, 22 percent were sons of masters; 14 percent were apprentices who had completed their apprenticeship; 31 percent had married the daughter of the master, and 8 percent had married the widow of the master. See more in: Crowston, C., (2008), ‘Women, Gender, and Guilds’, ibid., p. 40.
76.
Ibid., p. 41.
77.
Crowston, C., (2008), ‘Women, Gender, and Guilds’, ibid., p. 40.
78.
Farr, R.J., Artisans in Europe, ibid., p. 113.
79.
Even if a male applicant met all formal prerequisites, a number of guilds imposed extra ‘catch-up clauses’. One of the required personal traits and criteria were good fame and the ‘collective approval’. See more in: Ogilvie, S., ibid., p. 61.
80.
Farr, R.J., Artisans in Europe, ibid., pp. 40–41.
81.
Hufton, O., (1998), The Prospect Before Her: A History of Women in Western Europe 1500–1800, First Vintage Books Edition, n.p.
82.
Crowston, C., (2008), ‘Women, Gender, and Guilds in Early Modern Europe, ibid., pp. 38–39.
83.
Farr, R.J., (2000), Artisans in Europe, ibid., pp. 40–41.
84.
On political historical events in Marseille, see: Masson, P., (ed.), (1929), Les Bouches-du-Rhône: La vie Politique et administrative, vol. 5, Paris and Marseilles.
85.
Sewell, W., H, Jr, (1985), Structure and Mobility, ibid., p. 73.
86.
Ibid., p. 52.
87.
Ibid., p. 52.
88.
Sewell, W., H, Jr, (1985), Structure and Mobility, ibid., p. 52.
89.
On more information regarding different categories of female occupation in Marseille, see: Consolat, M., (ed.), (1835), Le choléra à Marseille 1834–1835, Mille Et Senés, publishers, Marseille, p. 69.
90.
Sewell, W., H, Jr, (1985), Structure and Mobility, ibid., p. 52.
91.
Ibid., p. 52.
92.
Craig, B., (2016), Female Enterprise Behind the Discursive Veil in Nineteenth-Century Northern France, Palgrave Macmillan, p. 10.
93.
Ibid., p. 53.
94.
Richard, E., (2006), ‘Des Marseillaises en affaires’, Annales du Midi, (85–102), p. 94.
95.
Sewell, W., H, Jr, (1985), Structure and Mobility…, ibid., p. 53.
96.
Ibid., p. 53.
97.
On more about seventeenth-century France, see: Bély, L., (2009), La France au XVII^e siècle: Puissance de l’ Etat, Contrôle de la Société, Presses Universitaires de France.
98.
For more on the matter, see Chap. 3 in this book.
99.
Sewell, W., H, Jr, (1985), Structure and Mobility…, ibid., p. 53.
100.
Ibid., p. 53.
101.
In some counties of southern England, straw-plaiting was women’s and children’s craft, as well. See more about it in: Sharpe, P., (1994), ‘The Women’s Harvest: Straw Plaiting and the Representation of Labouring Women’s Employment, c 1793–1885’, Rural History, vol. 2:2, (129–142).
102.
Sewell, W., H, Jr, (1985), Structure and Mobility, ibid., p. 54.
103.
Soldi, M., (2015), ‘Esporre il femminile. L’ Esposizione Beautrice (Firenze, 1890)’, Ricerche di S/Confine, VI:1, www.ricerchedisconfine.info
104.
Rinaldi, A., & Tagliazucchi, G., (2017), ‘Women Entrepreneurs in Italy: A Prosopographic Study’, Conference Paper presented at the European Business History Association 21st Annual Congress (with the theme): Transformation in Business and Society: A Historical Approach, Vienna University of Economics and Business, (24–26 August).
105.
Cooperativa Nazionale Sede Centrale, (2014), Le Industrie Femminili Italiane, Milano (1906), p. 11. https://archive.org (digitalized by the Internet Archives in 2014).
106.
Cooperativa Nazionale, ibid., p. 11.
107.
Ibid., p. 12.
108.
Picciaia, F., & Terzani, S., (2019) ‘Female Entrepreneurial Networks in a Historical Perspective: The Case of Industrie Femminili Italiane (I.F.I.) at the Beginning of 20th century’, in: Paolini, P., et al. (eds), Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Gender Research, Roma Tre University, ICGR 11–12 April, p. 492.
109.
See more about the ‘Lyceum’ in: Bounia, A., (2014), ‘Exhibiting Women’s Handicrafts: Arts and Crafts Exhibitions in Greece at the Dawn of the Twentieth Century’, Gender & History, 26:2, (287–312), pp. 298–304.
110.
Koliopoulos, J., & Veremis, Th., (2002), Greece. The Modern Sequel. From 1831 to the Present. Hurst & Company, London, p. 279.
111.
Bounia, A., ibid., p. 293.
112.
Gounaris, V., (1993–1994), ‘Hoi Slavofonoi tis Makedonias: He poreia tis ensomatosis sto Helleniko ethniko kratos, 1870–1940’, [The Slavophones of Macedonia. The course of integration into the Greek nation-state, 1870–1940], Makedonika, Syggramma Periodikon tis Hetaireias Makedonikon Spoudon, v. 29th, Thessaloniki, (209–218), pp. 218, 222–223.
113.
Bounia, A., ibid., p. 294.
114.
Curli, B., (2002), ‘Women Entrepreneurs and Italian Industrialization: Conjectures and Avenues for Research’, Enterprise and Society, vol. 3:4, (634–656), p. 647.
115.
Curli, B., (2002), ibid., p. 647.
116.
For more on ‘virility’ and ‘manhood’ in the Greek rural areas, see: Thanailaki, P., (2018), Gender Inequalities in Rural European Communities During 19th and Early 20th Century: A Historical Perspective, Springer, (especially) Chapter 5.
117.
Astrinaki, O., (2002), Ho andras kanei ti genia h he genia ton andra? Taftotites, Via, Historia stin Oreini Dytiki Krete, [The Man makes the generation or the generation makes the Man? Identities, Violence, History of the Mountainous Western Crete], Ph.D. Dissertation, Panteio Panepistimio, Athens, p. 422.

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Polly Thanailaki

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Thanailaki, P. (2021). Female Entrepreneurship and Guilds in Southern Europe. In: Gendered Stereotypes and Female Entrepreneurship in Southern Europe, 1700-1900. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66234-9_7

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66234-9_7
Published: 27 April 2021
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
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