Women and Economic Input in Independent Greece (Nineteenth to Early Twentieth Centuries)

Thanailaki, Polly

doi:10.1007/978-3-030-66234-9_3

Polly Thanailaki²

122 Accesses

Abstract

Greek women greatly contributed to family business during the nineteenth to early twentieth centuries. Their role was particularly pronounced in the small-scale trade though—in most cases—their contribution to family income was not visible since the Greek society had a large ‘underground’ economy and many undeclared jobs. Female artisans, shopkeepers, petty merchants, and women who ran small and medium-sized businesses such as silk craft shops, small textile enterprises, or eateries and taverns, constitute the core of the present study.

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Notes

1.
Tilly, L.A. & Scott, J.W. (1978¹), Women, Work and Family, Routledge, London & New York.
2.
Agriantoni, Ch., (1984), Les débuts de l’industrialisation en Grèce. (Les anées 1870 et 1880), Universite′ de Paris X-Nanterre, Thèse pour le Doctorat de 3ème cycle, Paris.
3.
Avdela, E.,(1987),‘Misthotes scheseis kai fyletikos katamerismos tis ergasias: oi gynaikes dimosioi ypalliloi stin Hellada, sto proto miso tou 20ou aiona’ [Waged employment and gendered work distribution: the women- civil clerks in Greece during the first half of twentieth century], Mnimon, 11, (234–246).
4.
Salimba, Z., (2004²), Gynaikes ergatries stin Helleniki viomechania kai sti viotecnhnia (1870–1922) [Women-workers in the Greek industry and in the small industry (1870–1922)], (published by) Historiko Archeio Hellenikis Neolaias, (EIE), Athens.
5.
Potamianos, N., (2018), ‘He ergasia ton gynaikon sto lianiko emporio stin Athina stis arches tou eikostou aiona’,[Women’s labor in the retailing trade in Athens in the beginning of twentieth century], Ta Historika, 67, (155–172).
6.
Hufton, O., (2003), He Historia ton Gynaikon stin Evropi 1500–1800 [Greek edition] (translated by E. Chrysochoou), Nefeli (publishers), Athens, p. 202: [The English edition], Hufton, O., (1998), The Prospect Before Her: A History of Women in Western Europe, 1500–1800, First Vintage publishers, New York.
7.
Tilly, L., & Scott, J.W., (1978¹), Women, Work and Family, ibid., p. 47.
8.
Thanailaki, P., (2013), Gynaikeies Martyries stis Selides tis Historias: hoi koinonikes prokatalipseis stis Helladikes kai stis Diethneis Koinotites kata to 19o me arches tou 20ou aiona [Women’s Testimonies on History pages: Social prejudices in the Greek and in the International Communities during nineteenth to early twentieth centuries], Papazissis (publishers), Athens, p. 109.
9.
Dertilis, G.B., (2005³), Historia tou Hellenikou Kratous 1830–1920 [History of the Greek State 1830–1920]. (2 vols) v. A’, Estia (publishers), Athens, p. 21.
10.
Kantaraki, M., (2001),Gynaikes kai ergasiakes sxeseis sti Viomichaniki Yfantourgia. Epidraseis stin taksiki diamorfosi: fylo kai taksi mesa apo tis ergasiakes sxeseis kai ton Syndikalismo ton Viomichanikon ergatrion tou kladou tis klostoyfantourgias [Women and Labor relations in industrial textiles. Influences on class shaping: gender and class as seen through labor relations and trade unionism of the industrial textile female workers in the textile industry], PhD Dissertation, Panteio University, Athens, p. 92.
11.
Potamianos, N., (2018), ‘He ergasia ton gynaikon sto lianiko emporio stin Athina stis arches tou eikostou aiona’, ibid., pp. 164–165.
12.
Minoglou-Pepelasis, I., (2004), ‘Gender and Business History in Greece: From the state of the art towards new explorations’. (First Draft), Gender and Business Panel. European Business History Association, Barcelona, 16–18 September, p. 7.
13.
Ibid., p. 7.
14.
Potamianos, N., (ed), (2019), 100 Chronia GSEVEE, 1919–2019 [100 years of GSEVEE, 1919–2009] (published by) GSEVEE, Athens, p. 76.
15.
Ibid., p. 8.
16.
Dertilis, G.B., Historia tou Hellenikou Kratous 1830–1920, ibid., v. A’, pp. 180–181.
17.
Pepelasis, I., (2010) ‘Entrepreneurial typologies in a young nation state: Evidence from the founding charters of Greek Societe’ Anonymes, 1830–1909’, Discussion Paper No. 200, Department of Economics, Athens University of Economics and Business.
18.
On the ‘familiocracy’ in the Greek business networks, see: Chap. 2 in the present book.
19.
Minoglou-Pepelasis, I., ‘Gender and Business History in Greece: From the state of the art towards new explorations’, ibid., pp. 8–9.
20.
She was called Eftalia Leonardou and was engaged in the company named ‘He Stafili’ that was a spirits/winery firm in 1909. See more: Minoglou-Pepelasis, I., ‘Gender and Business History in Greece’, ibid., p. 9.
21.
Ibid., pp. 9–10. See more on the matter in Chap. 2 of the present book.
22.
Minoglou-Pepelasis, I., ‘Women and Family Capitalism….’; ibid., p. 535.
23.
Pepelasis, I., ‘Entrepreneurial typologies in a young nation state….’; ibid., p. 5.
24.
On the role of family in the small-scale enterprises of the petite bourgeoisie especially in Athens, see: Potamianos, N., (2011), He Paradosiaki mikroastiki taksi tis Athinas: magazatores kai viotechnes 1880–1925 [The traditional petite-bourgeoisie in Athens; shopkeepers and small industrialists 1880–1925] PhD Dissertation, University of Crete, Rethymno, p. 569.
25.
Needlework was instructed as a separate subject in charity schools in Greece because it provided poor women with a skill that helped them earn their living. See more in: Bakalaki, A., (1994),‘Gender-Related Discourses and Representations of Cultural Specificity in Nineteenth-Century Greece’, Journal of Modern Greek Studies, 12:1, (75–112), p. 86.
26.
The names given to the various kinds of embroidery derived from the French language. These were the ‘σεμέν’ (chemin/ rectangle), the ‘καρρέ’ (carre′/ square piece), the ‘ατραντές’ (a strip of lace sewn entre deux pieces of cloth), and the crochet pieces. See more in: Bakalaki, A., ‘Gender-Related Discourses….’; ibid., p. 94.
27.
Ephemeris ton Kyrion (newspaper), 15th May, 1912, issue 1023, Athens, pp. 2041–42.
28.
Ibid., p. 2041.
29.
Ephemeris ton Kyrion (newspaper) 28th February 1888, issue 51, Athens, p. 3.
30.
Salimba, Z., (2004²), Gynaikes ergatries stin Helleniki viomechania kai sti viotecnhnia (1870–1922) [Women-workers in the Greek industry and in the small industry (1870–1922)], (published by) Historiko Archeio Hellenikis Neolaias, EIE, Athens, p. 44.
31.
In other texts she is referred as ‘Dramitinou’.
32.
Ephemeris ton Kyrion (newspaper), 19th January, 1903, issue 733, Athens, p. 8.
33.
Gaitanou-Gianniou, A., (1928–1931), ‘He Ellenida os epicheirimatias kai os viomichaniki Ergatria [The Greek woman as entrepreneur and as factory worker], Hellenis, Miniaion Periodikon tou Ethnikou Symvouliou ton Hellenidon Gynaikon, pp. 32–33. On the nuns and their expertise in silk production, see more in the following pages.
34.
‘Factories’ were called all small- or medium-sized industries. But in real terms, out of the workshops and industries that operated in Piraeus, only the silk factory of Loukas Rallis can be characterized as such. See about it in the following pages. Kotea, M., (1995), He viomichaniki Zoni tou Peiraia (1860–1900) [The industrial zone in Piraeus 1860–1900], PhD Dissertation, Panteio Panepistimio, p. 80.
35.
Ephemeris ton Kyrion, ibid., 25th October 1892, issue 278, Athens, p. 6.
36.
On silk farming and industry in Lakonia and Messinia, see: Agriantoni, Ch., (1984), Les debuts de l’industrialisation en Grece. (Les anees 1870 et 1880); ibid., p. 14 (and other pages): Agriantoni, Ch., (2010), (Greek edition), Oi Aparches tis ekviomichanisis stin Helada ton 19o aiona [The beginning of industrialization in Greece during nineteenth century], Katarti (publishers), Athens.
37.
Kairofylas, Kostas, (2013), He epanastasi ton gynaikon stin Athina tis Belle Epoque [Women’s revolt in the ‘Belle Epoque’ Athens], Kastaniotis (publishers), Athens, (n.p.).
38.
Ephemeris ton Kyrion, 21st October 1890, issue 184, Athens, p. 7.
39.
Ephemeris, ibid., 16th December 1890, issue 192, p. 7.
40.
Ephemeris, ibid., 15th March 1892, issue 251, p. 4.
41.
On charity schools and their contribution to the Greek society as well as the social control exerted on them by the elite ladies, see: Thanailaki, P., (2009), ‘Young women at risk: Poverty, malnutrition and philanthropy. The role of charity schools in Greek society, 1830–1899’, in: Christine Mayer, Ingrid Lohmann et al. (eds), Children and Youth at Risk. Historical and International Perspectives, Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main, (195–202).
42.
Ephemeris…, 25th October, 1892, ibid.
43.
Ibid., 25th October, 1892, pp. 6–7.
44.
Ibid., 10th September, 1895, issue 409, p. 7.
45.
Bounia, A., (August 2014), ‘Exhibiting Women’s Handicrafts: Arts and Crafts Exhibitions in Greece at the Dawn of the Twentieth Century’, Gender & History, 26:2, (287–312), pp. 290 and 307. From this position I would like to thank the author for supplying me with this paper.
46.
The woman who was in charge of the exhibition room that served also as a shop, was called Eirini Bletsa.
47.
More on the Museum and the exhibits, see: Stergiou, S.I., (2008), Ta Kentimata tou Mouseiou Zygomala. Mia eikastiki paremvasi [The embroideries of the Zygomala museum: An art mediated intervention], Ph.D. Dissertation, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, pp. 21–22, 37.
48.
Florentini attended the Royal Academy of Arts. Her teacher was the famous artist named Sickert.
49.
On more about Florentini Kaloutsi see: Mitsotaki, Z., (1999), Florentini Kaloutsi kai he techni tis Kritis [Florentini Kaloutsi and the art of Crete], (published by) Mouseio Benaki.
50.
Veremis, Th., & Koliopoulos, J., (2006), (the Greek edition), Hellas he synchroni synecheia: Apo to 1821 mecrhi simera, Kastaniotis (publishers), Athens, p. 328: Koliopoulos, J., & Veremis, Th., (2002), (The English edition), Greece: The Modern Sequel, Hurst & Company, London.
51.
More on the matter, see: Schoep, I., (2018), ‘Building the Labyrinth: Arthur Evans and the Construction of Minoan Civilization’ American Journal of Archaeology, 122(1), (5–32).
52.
Papoutsaki, V., (2017), ‘«Ergazetai apeiros thetikotera yper tis eleftherias tis Hellinidos gynaikos, apo kathe koinoniologousan feministrian»’ [She works in a much more positive way for the Greek women’s emancipation, more than any other sociology-minded feminist], IScreta.gr (uploaded March 07, 2017).
53.
In the decade of 1830s, a German traveler, journalist, and historian—Jakob P. Fallmerayer—formulated the wrong and non-historic theory that Hellenism did not originate from the ancient Greeks—as he had formerly described—but modern Greeks were simply ‘albanized’ or ‘slavified’ tribes that bore no blood relations and characteristics with the ancient Greeks. This theory was refuted by the foremost Greek historian K. Paparrigopoulos who wrote a history book that consisted of a wide range of volumes dating from the ancient times to the modern. See more on the matter in the Introduction chapter of the present book.
54.
Papoutsaki, V., (2017), ibid.
55.
Mitsotaki, Z., (2012), ‘Eisfora tis Florentinis Kaloutsi sti diadromi tou nimatos’ [The contribution of Florentini Kaloutsi to the thread path], p. 5, www.panoreon.gr.
56.
Bakalaki, A., (1994), ibid., pp. 88, 91.
57.
Bounia, A., ibid., p. 295.
58.
See more in Ephemeris ton Kyrion (newspaper) 15th March, 1908, issue 944, Athens, p. 141.
59.
Bounia, A., ibid., p. 295.
60.
https://www.taathinaika.gr/i-odos-aiolou-ton-athinon-kata-to-1910.
61.
Ibid.
62.
It is assumed, here, that the journalist called on the bakeries during the siesta time when the male owners were taking a nap while their spouses had taken over the shift in bakery store. Potamianos, N., (2018), ibid., pp. 167–168.
63.
Ibid., p. 169.
64.
Ephemeris ton Kyrion (newspaper), 20th January, 1902, issue 692, Athens, pp. 1–2.
65.
http://www.patridamou.gr/?page_id=386.
66.
A kind of Ottoman currency that was broadly used in the markets of the Orient. See more on the matter: Liata, E., (1996), Floria Dekatessera stenoun grosia saranta: He kykloforia ton nomismaton ston Helleniko choro [Floria Dekatessera stenoun grosia saranta: The circulation of the coins in the Greek lands], (published by) The Center for Hellenic Research, Athens, p. 51, 177, 181.
67.
As a social practice that is observed in Greece until today in a small number of regions. See: Syggros, A., (1908), Apomnimonevmata [Memoirs], (3 vols.), Estia (publishers) Athens, vol. A’., pp. 12–13.
68.
http://www.patridamou.gr/?page_id+386.
69.
Konstantinidou, M., (2015),‘Sirotrofia- Metaksourgia’, https://prezi.com/tgbvn8lfiz.
70.
http://www.e-thraki.gr/cgs.cfm?areaid=1&id-124.
71.
The weavers or the embroiderers produced colors by using leaves, roots, fruit, and the skin of the trunks of local trees and plants, according to traditional recipes. Konstantinidou, M., ibid.
72.
Konstantinidou, M., ibid.
73.
Agriantoni, Ch., ibid., p. 97.
74.
Athanasios Douroutis was born into a wealthy family of merchants with vast business networks in Adriatic Sea. See more in: Chatziioannou, M.,- Ch.,(1995), ‘ He ekseliksi mias paradosiakis epicheirisis sto a’ miso tou 19ou aiona: To systima ton antallagon tis Adriatikis’ [The evolution of a traditional firm in the first half of nineteenth century: The exchange system in the Adriatic Sea], in: Agriantoni, Ch., & Chatziioannou, M.,-Ch., (eds), To Metaksourgeio tis Athinas (Collective book), (17–41), p. 38, helios-eie.ekt.gr.
75.
On Michael Iatros see: Liata, E., (2013), ‘Michael Iatros (1779–1868): Mia polydiastati prosopikotita tis Nafpliakis Koinonias’ [Michael Iatros (1779–1868): A multidimensional personality of the society in Nafplion], in: Analekta VII, Minutes of a Scientific Symposium, helios-eie.ekt.gr/EIE/bitstream/10442/14513/2/INR_Liata_13_01pdf.
76.
In 1830 Florentia’s son, Ioannis Douroutis, donated 10,000 drachmas to the Fillologikos Syllogos Parnassos (an Association of Arts and Civilization named ‘Parnassos’), in memoriam to his mother’s death. See: Epetiris tou Fillologikou Syllogou Parnassos (for the years 1930–1936), (Yearbook), 3rd Period, Athens 1937, R. Vidoris (publishers), p. 199.
77.
Chatziioannou, M.-Ch., (1995), ‘ He ekseliksi mias paradosiakis epicheirisis….’ ibid., p. 38.
78.
More on her activities, see in the following pages.
79.
www.argolikivivliothiki.gr.
80.
Agriantoni, Ch., (1995), ‘«Siriki Hetaireia tis Hellados»: Prosarmogi kai afomoiosi mias megalis viomichanikis epicheirisis’ [The Silk Company of Greece: Adaptation and Adjustment of a Big Industrial Venture], in: To Metaksourgeio tis Athinas, ibid., (83–136), pp. 93–95.
81.
Ibid., p. 97.
82.
Agriantoni, Ch., ‘«Siriki Hetaireia»’,ibid., pp. 97–98.
83.
Agriantoni, Ch., ‘«Siriki Hetaireia tis Hellados», ibid., p. 98. Footnote 53.
84.
The Greek factory of George Fafoutis in Evoia employed between fifteen and twenty-two people who were all girls. See more in: Sakki, K., (April-May 2015) ‘To Ergostasio Metaksourgias ton Andronianon.Anapinistirio Metaksis Georgiou Fafouti: Historiki Katagrafi’ [The silk factory in Adronianoi: The silk processing enterprise of George Fafoutis: A Historical register], He foni ton Andronianon (newspaper), issue 95, p. 4., www.andronianoi.gr.
85.
Hufton, O., He Historia, ibid., p. 201.
86.
Iefimerida.gr/news/281717, 4/01/2017.
87.
More precisely: The steam-operating silk factory of Danasis employed 120 female workers, the silk company of Maravas Brothers had 120 women workers while the factories of Stasinopolos and Stamateas employed 60 women laborers. Papadopoulos silk enterprises had 70 female workers and Mamaloukas industry employed 50 women workers. See more in: Plakonouri, D., et al., (2009), Xoros apo Metaksi [Dance of Silk], (publishedby) http://kpe-kal.mes.sch.gr/wp/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Metaxi.pdf (published on line: November, 4, 2016), pp. 36–37.
88.
A Greek currency unit. One drachma was subdivided into 100 ‘lepta’.
89.
Kotea, M., Viomichaniki Zoni tou Pireaia…; ibid., p. 82.
90.
Ibid., pp. 82, 84.
91.
In the northern area of the island.
92.
Papadimitriou, H., (1990), He Metaksourgia stis koinotites Lapithou kai Karava tis Kyprou [The silk industries in the communities of Lapithos and Karavas in Cyprus], PhD Dissertation, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, p. 25.
93.
There was also a number of men-weavers in the mountainous areas who were expert in weaving, mainly in making cotton goods, and more especially coarse materials. See: Papadimitriou, H., He Metaksourgia…; ibid., p. 27.
94.
Ibid., p. 28.
95.
Ibid., p. 29.
96.
Ibid., p. 30.
97.
Papadimitriou, H., (2013), ‘HoKaravas:TexneskaiTexnites’,www.Karavas.org.cy/images/users/1/ karavas_texnes_texnites pdf (published online on: December 10th, 2013).
98.
Papadimitriou, H., He Metaksourgia…; ibid., p. 141.
99.
A metric unit of mass: one oka = 1282 grams.
100.
Papadimitriou, H., He Metaksourgia…; ibid., p. 142.
101.
Ibid., p. 143. The sisters worked until the decade of1950s when they gave up their craft.
102.
The silk moths were fed on green mulberry leaves, abundant in many Greek regions.
103.
She was active in charities, too. See: Sakki, K., (2015),‘To Ergostasio Metaksourgias’, ibid., pp. 1 and 4.
104.
Sakki, K., He Foni ton Andronianon, ibid., p. 4.
105.
See more about it in: Choros apo Metaksi, ibid.
106.
Ibid. The endings ‘ou’ and ‘os’ denote the female and male genders respectively, in the Greek grammar.
107.
Choros apo Metaksi, ibid., p. 38.
108.
Ibid., p. 39.
109.
Ibid., p. 40.
110.
Liata, E., (2013), ‘Michael Iatros (1779–1868). Mia polydiastati prosopikotita tis Nafpliakis koinonias’, ibid., p. 376.
111.
Ibid., p. 373.
112.
Archeion tou Michael Iatrou (1802–1893) (thereafter referred as AMI), (compiled by) Spiliotakis, K.K., (1893) [The Archive of Michael Iatrou], in: Tetradia Ergasias, (published by) Kentron Neoellinikon Erevnon Ethnikou Idrymatos Erevnon, Athens, vol. VII, number 755.
113.
AMI, ibid., vol., XI, number 1369, pp. 40–41.
114.
AMI, ibid., Vol. VII, number 725, p. 42.
115.
A strong alcoholic beverage.
116.
Chaidari was a village in the province of Nafplion.
117.
Liata, E., (2013), ‘Michael Iatros (1779–1868), ibid., p. 376, footnote 20.
118.
The local elections served the purpose of electing the proxies and electors-representatives of the provinces of Argos, Korinthos, and Nafplion. The elected men were to take part in the National Assembly assigned for the preparation and adoption of the Constitution of 1844. See more in: Argolikivivliothiki.gr/2016/06/13/ekloges-1843.
119.
This was common practice in Greece.
120.
Later they were replaced by the supermarkets in most Greek cities. The most well-known grocery stores in the 1960s in the Athenian neighborhoods were: Kikizas’ grocery shop in the district of Kolonos, Gountoufass in the area of Sepolia, Oikonomou in the neighborhood of Gyzi, Gartzos in the suburb of Kallithea, Mavrommatis in the area of Academia Platonos, Koutsia in the central area of Kolonaki, Tambakiotis in Patission St., and Bakas in the area of Pagkrati. See more in: Pleksousakis, F., (2016), To paradosiako Pantopoleio sto Diadiktyo: Mia Meleti Periptosis stin Helleniki Pragmatikotita [The traditional type of a grocer’s store in the network. A case study in the Greek reality], Diploma Dissertation, TEI Peiraia, Peiraeus, p. 7.
121.
Ibid., p. 8.
122.
This fiction story belongs to Papadiamantis’ collection entitled ‘Athinaika’ that is centered around the author’s life in Athens. See more in: Papadiamantis.net.
123.
She was attached with this appellation because her sister’s son-in-law was called Vasileios Malamos who people mostly knew. Balomenos, K.A., (2001), ‘Dromoi, Katastimata kai Idioktisies tis propolemikis Lamias’ [Streets, Stores and Properties in pre-war Lamia’, Fthiotika Chronika, v. 22, (61–108), Lamia.
124.
Balomenos, K.A., (2015), ‘Katastimata trofimon (Pantopoleia) tis propolemikis Lamias’ [Grocery stores in the pre-war Lamia], amfictyon.blogspot.gr/2015/07/blog-post_6.html: www.kaliterilamia.gr.
125.
A type of bean also called as ‘broad bean’.
126.
Chryssou-Karatza, K., (2013), ‘Ta pantopoleia tou Pyrgou Santorinis kata ton 20 kai 21o aiona. Leitourgia kai metaschimatismos’ [Operation and transformation of grocery stores in the town of Pyrgos-Santorini during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries], in: M. Tsianikas, N. Maadad, et al., (eds.), ‘Greek Research in Australia: Proceedings of the Biennial International Conference of Greek Studies, Flinders University, June 2011’, Flinders University, Department of Language Studies-Modern Greek, Adelaide, (318–333), p. 323.
127.
Ibid., p. 327.
128.
Ibid., p. 327.
129.
www.siatistanews.gr/epagelmata/04.pdf, p. 7.
130.
We are not supplied with more information. Anagnostopoulou A., (2015), He Politistiki Klironomia enos topou kai he apichisi tis stous neous-He periptosi tis Andritsainas [The cultural heritage of a place and its impact on the young people - The case of Andritsaina], Bachelor’s Degree Thesis, Harokopio University of Athens, p. 83. Estia.hua.gr/file/lib/default/data/16502/theFile.
131.
Alexiou, S.,(2014), ‘He feta tis chiras ston Pirea pou trellainei oli tin Attiki’ [The widow’s feta cheese that made all Attika people crazy about it], in: https://m.propaganda.gr.
132.
As mentioned above, the author Alexandros Papadiamantis was a regular customer in a particular Athenian tavern named ‘Kachrimanis’ in the district of Psyrri while many of his literary works focused on these underground taverns. For example, his short story entitled ‘The Christmas of the Lazy Man’ published in 1896 in the newspaper Acropolis, gives a vivid picture of the atmosphere of such a tavern.
133.
Papadiamantis’ favorite food was a cheap dish that was served in most Greek taverns consisting of fried picarels. On the role of food and drink in Papadiamantis’ works see: Apostolidou, M., Vakalopoulos, G., et al., (2016), (Research Project): Trofi kai Poto sto ergo tou Papadiamanti [Food and Drink in Papadiamantis’s works], (published by) Hetereia Papadiamantikon Spoudon, Athens.
134.
‘Plaka’ is a neighborhood in central Athens where there are many traditional taverns that operate until today. It is the most popular touristic area in the Greek capital.
135.
In other literary works of Papadiamantis such as in He Fonissa, Ta dyo Terata, Gyni Pleousa—to name a number of them—very stunning scenes of the life in a tavern are described, where there was not only food but also gambling and heavy drinking. See more in: Politou-Marmarinou, H., (2017), ‘Papadiamantis, Maupassant kai Chekhov: Apo ti Skiatho stin Evropi’ [Papadiamantis, Maupassant and Chekhov: From Skiathos to Europe], Sygkrisi 7, (30–58), p. 32.
136.
Therefore the taverns evolved into family restaurants in the following decades.
137.
Vagourdi, E., (2016), ‘HetavernatischerasstiFlorina’, www.florinapast.mysch.gr/?p=3440.
138.
In particular he owes a lot of money.
139.
https://argolikivivliothiki.gr/2014/12/03/michalou.

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Polly Thanailaki

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Thanailaki, P. (2021). Women and Economic Input in Independent Greece (Nineteenth to Early Twentieth Centuries). In: Gendered Stereotypes and Female Entrepreneurship in Southern Europe, 1700-1900. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66234-9_3

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66234-9_3
Published: 27 April 2021
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
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