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Familiocracy in the Greek Business Elite Class: Endogamy and Other Cultural Traits

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Gendered Stereotypes and Female Entrepreneurship in Southern Europe, 1700-1900

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Abstract

Family was a significant component in business ventures in Greece despite the fact that the shaping of female roles varied geographically. In the Greek case, two different categories of geographical identification can be discerned: one category was that of the capitalist families living in the newly shaped Greek state, and the other was that of diaspora merchants who lived abroad. Moreover, family ties were strong because family was significant in the expansion of business companies. Female financial input in them differed by region and was determined by local conditions. Additionally, endogamy and the characteristics related to strategic alliances and planned allegiances were the traits that constituted the core plan of the projects of the elite business classes in both categories.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Coli, A., & Rose, M.B., (1999), ‘Family and Firms: The culture and evolution of family firms in Britain and Italy in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries’, Scandinavian Economic History Review, 40:1 (24–47). (Published online: December 20th, 2011).

  2. 2.

    Van de Kerkhof, S., (2010), ‘Women Entrepreneurs in the Early Industrialization - A Regional Comparison of the Ruhr and Upper Silesia’, Conference Paper, presented at The 8th European Social Science History Conference, (13–16 April), University of Ghent, Belgium.

  3. 3.

    Gleadle, K., (2001), Social History in Perspective; British Women in the Nineteenth Century, Palgrave Hampshire, p. 62.

  4. 4.

    Coughlin, J.H. & Thomas, A.R., (2002), The Rise of Women Entrepreneurs: People, Process and Global Trends, Greenwood Publishing Group, pp. 5–6.

  5. 5.

    Pepelasis-Minoglou, I., (2007),‘Women and Family Capitalism in Greece, c.1780–1850’, Business History Review, 81:3, (517–538) (published online by Cambridge University Press: December 13th, 2011): Pepelasis, I., (2010), ‘Entrepreneurial typologies in a young nation state: Evidence from the founding charters of Greek Societe’ Anonymes, 1830–1909’, Discussion Paper No. 200, Department of Economics, Athens University of Economics and Business.

  6. 6.

    On matters of familiocracy on capitalist Greek women that are studied in the present chapter, I relied on Ioanna’s Pepelasis’ research papers (2007, 2010) because they are pioneering in the field and also rigorous and precise.

  7. 7.

    Selekou, O., (1998), He kathimerinotita mias astikis oikogeneias stin Athina: he oikogeneia tou trapeziti Stefanou Fragkiadi, Athina 1891–1908, [The daily routine of a bourgeois family in Athens: the family of the banker Stefanos Fragkiades, Athens 1891–1908], Ph. Dissertation, Panteion University, Athens.

  8. 8.

    Vogli, E., (2010), To gnision Metaxa: He anaptyksi mias oikogeneiakis epicheirisis (mesa 19ou-mesa 20ou aiona), [The original Metaxas: The development of a family-based company (mid-nineteenth until mid-twentieth centuries)], Livanis (publishers), Athens.

  9. 9.

    Herlihy, P., (1979) ‘Greek merchants in Odessa in the Nineteenth Century’, Harvard Ukrainian Studies, 3:4 (Part 1), (399–420).

  10. 10.

    Harlafti, G., (1993), ‘Emporio kai Naftilia ton 19o aiona. To epicheirimatiko diktyo ton Hellenon tis Diasporas. H ‘Chiotiki’ phasi (1830–1860)’, [Trade and Shipping in nineteenth century. The business network of the Greek Diaspora. The ‘Chiot’ phase (1830–1860)] Mnimon 15, (69–127).

  11. 11.

    Mandylara, A., (2000) ‘Helleniki Diaspora kai Historiographiki Diaspora. Diadromes, adieksoda, epanektimiseis’, [Greek Diaspora and Historiographical Dispersion: Paths, Impasses, Reevaluations], Mnimon 22, (239–246).

  12. 12.

    Chatziioannou M.,-Ch., (2009) ‘Nees Proseggiseis sti meleti ton emporikon diktyon tis Diasporas: He elliniki koinotita sto Manchester’, [New Approaches to Diaspora’s Commercial Networks: The Greek Community in Manchester], Research Notebooks 28, (145–167).

  13. 13.

    Vlami, D., (2006), ‘Gynaikes, oikogeneia, koinonia tis emporikis diasporas, 18os–19os ai.’, [Women, family, society of the merchant diaspora, eighteenth to nineteenth centuries], Ta Historika 45, (243–280).

  14. 14.

    Poulos, M., (2003), Arms and the Woman: Just Warriors and Greek Feminist Identity, http://www.gutenberg-e.org/poulos/chapter2.html

  15. 15.

    Ksiradaki, K. (1988), To Feministiko kinima stin Hellada (1830–1936). Protopores Hellenides, [The Feminist Movement in Greece (1830–1936). Pioneering Greek Women], Glaros (publishers), Athens, pp. 68–69.

  16. 16.

    Anagnostopoulou, Ch., (2011–2012), ‘To Gynaikeio Zitima sto periodiko Vosporis’ [Women’s Issue in Vosporis Journal], Mnimon 32, (125–150), p. 142.

  17. 17.

    Varika, E., (1987), (Greek edition), He ekseyersi ton kyrion: He genesi mias feministikis syneidisis stin Hellada 1833–1907, (published by) Idryma Erevnas kai Paideias tis Emporikis Trapezas tis Hellados, Athens, p. 67: Varika, E., (1986), (French edition), La révolte des dames: genèse d’ une conscience XIXème Siècle (1833–1907), Thèse de doctorat en Histoire, Université à Paris 7.

  18. 18.

    See more on the matter in: Thanailaki, P., (2013), Gynaikeies Martyries stis Selides tis Historias: oi koinonikes prokatalipseis stis Helladikes kai stis Diethneis Koinotites kata to 19o me arches tou 20ou aiona, [Women’s Testimonies on History Pages: Social Prejudices in the Greek and in the International Communities During Nineteenth to Early Twentieth Centuries], Papazissis (publishers), Athens, p. 120.

  19. 19.

    Scrip (newspaper), 28/09/1908, issue, 16161, Athens, p. 3.

  20. 20.

    Petras, Ch., (2006), To Profil ton Peiraioton viomechanon stis arches tou 20ou aiona, [The profile of the industrialists in Piraeus during early twentieth century], Bachelor’s Degree Thesis, University of the Aegean, Mytelene, pp. 32–33: On textile industry in Piraeus, see: Papastefanaki, L., (2011), Ergasia, Technologia kai Fylo stin Helleniki Viomichania tou Peiraia, 1870–1940, [Labor, Technology and Gender in the Greek Industry of Piraeus, 1870–1940], Panepistimiakes Ekdoseis Kritis (publishers), Heraklio.

  21. 21.

    Giannitsiotis, J., (2001), He diamorfosi tis Astikis taksis tou Peiraia, 1860–1909, [The shaping of the middle class in Piraeus, 1860–1909], Ph. Dissertation, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, p. 164.

  22. 22.

    APA, (Archeion Protodikon Athinon), [Archive of the Athens First Instance Court], D1885/1885, Number 13, as quoted in: Giannitsiotis, I., Diamorfosi astikis taksis…, ibid., p. 164.

  23. 23.

    Pardali-Lainou, A., (1990), He ekseliksi tou limaniou tou Pirea kai he epidrasi tou stin oikonomiki anaptyksi tis evriteris periochis tou Pirea apo to 1835 eos to 1985, [The evolution of the port city of Pireus and its role in the economic development of the insider area of Pireus from 1835 to 1985], Ph. Dissertation, Panteion University, Athens, p. 88.

  24. 24.

    Giannitsiotis, I., Diamorfosi astikis taksis…, ibid., p. 164.

  25. 25.

    Demos Vourvoulis owned a flour mill that was located in a neighborhood named ‘Maniatika’, in the city center of Piraeus, close to Aghia Sophia Cathedral. He helped his compatriots who originated from Mani by offering them a placement in his mill. Vourvoulis was also an elected member of the municipal council of Piraeus. See more in: Scrip (newspaper), (12/12/1907), issue 10680 Athens, p. 3: www.omorfimani.gr/2015/11/13

  26. 26.

    However, he had been accused of forgery and abuse at the Piraeus Customs House. See more in: Scrip, ibid., (8/10/ 1909) issue 16593, p. 3.

  27. 27.

    For a full account of facts about Metaxas company, see: Vogli, E., (2010), To gnision Metaxa: He anaptyksi mias oikogeneiakis epicheirisis (mesa 19ou-mesa 20ou aiona), ibid.

  28. 28.

    Vogli, E., (2012), ‘«Mega Ergostasion kataskevis cogniac S. kai E., kai A Metaxa en Peiraiei».Epixeirimatiki organosi kai stratigikes poliseon mias Hellenikis potoviomichanias (1880–1940)’, [‘The big brandy distillery firm owned by S.E., and A., Metaxas in Piraeus’: Business Organization and Strategies of a Greek Proto-industrial Factory (1880–1940)], in: Petmezas, S., Harlafti, G., et al., (eds), Theoritikes anazitiseis kai empeirikes erevnes, Alexandreia (publishers), Athens, (171–187), p. 176.

  29. 29.

    Chatziioannou, I., (ed.), (1923), Panhellinion Lefkoma Ethnikis Ekatontaetiridos 1821–1921, He chrysi vivlos tou Hellenismou, (6 vols), Ι. Chatziioannou (publishers), Athens, v.B’, pp. 260–261.

  30. 30.

    Mlp-blo-g-spot.blogspot.gr/2010/11blog-post_28.html

  31. 31.

    Chatziioannou, I., (ed.), (1923), Panhellinion Lefkoma…, ibid.

  32. 32.

    Gaitanou-Gianniou, A., (1928–1931), ‘He Ellenida os epicheirimatias kai os viomichaniki Ergatria, [The Greek woman as entrepreneur and as factory worker], Hellenis, Miniaion Periodikon tou Ethnikou Symvouliou ton Hellenidon Gynaikon, Athens, pp. 32–33.

  33. 33.

    [Pireas Piraeus], ‘Ergostasia Peireos apo tin agenta tou etous 1916’, [The factories in Piraeus as drawn from the yearbook of 1916], Pireas-piraeus.blogspot.com, (published online: 21st January 2012) (186–192), in: Alepoudelis, Th., http://pandektis.ekt.gr/pandektis/handle/10442/65796

  34. 34.

    Hellenis…, ibid., pp. 32–33.

  35. 35.

    Neai Ideai-Efimeris tou Laou (newspaper), 19/09/1881, Athens.

  36. 36.

    Giannitsiotis, J., (2001), He diamorfosi tis Astikis taksis tou Peiraia, 1860–1909, [The shaping of the middle class in Piraeus, 1860–1909], ibid., p. 95.

  37. 37.

    [T., TH.], (2018), ‘He parousia tis epicherimatia ton arxon tou 20ou ai. Helenis Kakavouli stin Komotini’. [The presence of the entrepreneur Eleni Kakavouli in Komotini], www.paratiritis-news.gr/article/201707

  38. 38.

    www.paratiritis-news.gr, ibid.

  39. 39.

    Mayer, K., (1957–1960), Historia tou Hellenikou Typou: Efimerides kai Periodika 1901–1959, [History of the Greek Press: Newspapers and Journals, 1901–1959], (3 vols), vol. 3, p. 23.

  40. 40.

    Giannitsiotis, J., He diamorfosi, ibid., p. 115.

  41. 41.

    On more about the matter, see: Floros, K., (1987), ‘Konstantinos P. Agathoklis kai Sia’, [Konstantinos P. Agathoklis and Co.] Fthiotika Chronika, (8), pp. 34–61.

  42. 42.

    Balomenos, K., (2017), ‘Konstantinos Pan. Agathoklis: Protoporoi viomichanoi sti Fthiotida’, [Konstantinos Pan. Agathoklis: Pioneering industrialists in Fthiotida], amfiktyon.blogspot.com

  43. 43.

    He also owned a tobacco factory in Piraeus. See: Sotosalexopoulos.blogspot.com

  44. 44.

    Both Konstantinos and Georgios Agathoklis were elected as representatives of the Hellenic Parliament in different constituencies. See: Balomenos, K., (2017), ibid.

  45. 45.

    Sotosalexopoulos.blogspot.com

  46. 46.

    Balomenos, K., (2017), ibid.

  47. 47.

    Mylosmatsopoulou.gr (i-istoria).

  48. 48.

    [Vouli ton Hellenon], (1822–1935), Mitroon Plireksousion Gerousiaston kai Voulefton, [The Hellenic Parliament (1822–1935), ‘Registry of Proxies for Senators and Members of Parliament’], Athens, pp. 88–89.

  49. 49.

    Scrip (newspaper), 12/07/1900, issue 1759, Athens, p. 4.

  50. 50.

    It was located in Stadiou St., 28, ibid., 7/7/1900, p. 4.

  51. 51.

    From this position I would like to thank Callicounis company for providing me with information. The business operates until today, see: Charontakis, D., (2008), ‘Oi Kalamatianoi potopoioi’, [The liquor distillers in Kalamata], www.tovima.gr

  52. 52.

    Pavlidis chocolate bars are sold on the market until today. On more on the history of Pavlidis chocolate factory, see: Pikrammenou-Varfi, D., (1991), ‘Ο Spyridon Pavlidis kai to «Glykismatopoieion» tou-Ta prota chronia tis protis Helenikis Viomichanias’, [Spyridon Pavlidis and his «Glykismatopoieion»–The early years of the first Hellenic industry], (published by), The Heleniko, Logotechniko kai Historiko, Archeio, [E.L.I.A.], Athens.

  53. 53.

    ToBHMA, [Team], (28/01/2011), ‘Sokolata Ygeias Pavlidi: 150 chronia apolafsis’. [The ‘Ygeias’ chocolate of Pavlidis. 150 years of delight], https://www.tovima.gr

  54. 54.

    Empros (newspaper), 31/12/1897, (no issue-first page missing), p. 3.

  55. 55.

    Sideri, M., (06/01/2002), ‘He Sofokleous choris tin «chokolata» tis’, [Sofokleous St., without its chocolate], https://www.kathimerini.gr

  56. 56.

    To BHMA, Team, (28/01/2011), ibid.

  57. 57.

    The ending ‘ou’ in the last name denotes female gender according to Greek grammar while the ending ‘os’ indicates male gender.

  58. 58.

    Empros (newspaper), (11/12/1904), issue 2926, Athens, p. 4.

  59. 59.

    The distillery of Efstathios Finopoulos in 1884 operated with a power of 50 horsepower (hp). Its production amounted to the weight measure of 3000 ‘okas’ per day. Thirty-five employees were working in this distillery. See more in: Pardali-Lainou, A., ibid., p. 96.

  60. 60.

    Petras, Ch., ibid., p. 34.

  61. 61.

    Empros (newspaper), 10/11/1907, issue 3,974, Athens.

  62. 62.

    In 1861 the city of Piraeus had 6452 inhabitants. In 1870 the number of the citizens came up to 10,963 and in 1879 it was 21,618.

  63. 63.

    Kotea, M., (1995), He Viomichaniki Zoni tou Peiraia (1860–1900), [The Industrial zone in Piraeus (1860–1900], Ph. Dissertation, Panteion University, Athens, pp. 134 and 206.

  64. 64.

    Salimba, Z., (2004), Gynaikes ergatries stin Helleniki viomechania kai sti viotecnhnia (1870–1922), [Women-workers in the Greek industry and in the small industry (1870–1922)], (published by) Historiko Archeio Hellenikis Neolaias, (EIE), Athens, pp. 17 and 20.

  65. 65.

    See more on the matter: Thanailaki, P., (2009), ‘Young women at risk: Poverty, malnutrition and philanthropy. The role of charity schools in Greek society, 1830–1899’, in: Christine Mayer, et al. (eds), Children and Youth at Risk: Historical and International Perspectives, Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main, (195–202).

  66. 66.

    Tsakouris, K., (1996), He Philanthropia stin Hellada ton 19o aiona. He sygkrotisi kai leitourgia. He periptosi tis Athinas kai tou Peiraia. [Philanthropy in nineteenth-century Greece. Structure and Function. The case of Athens and Piraeus], Ph. Dissertation, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, p. 147.

  67. 67.

    Ephemeris ton Kyrion, (newspaper), 01/01/ 1913, issue 1029, Athens, p. 2189.

  68. 68.

    On orphanages in Piraeus, see: Theodorou, V., (1992) ‘Philanthropia kai poli: Orfanoi kai astegoi paides ston Piraea gyro sto 1875’, [Philanthropy and the city: Orphan and homeless children in Piraeus, circa. 1875], Mnimon (14), (71–90).

  69. 69.

    Syndesmos Kyrion pros Prostasian tis Ergatidos, www.elia.prg.gr/Entry Images 5%C1%

  70. 70.

    Ephemeris ton Kyrion, (newspaper), 01/01/1913, ibid.

  71. 71.

    Salimba, Z., ibid., p. 257.

  72. 72.

    Tsakouris, K., ibid., Tables, entry 55 (n.p.).

  73. 73.

    Sitaras, Th., (2015), ‘Athina, 1835: Apo ta ladofanara sto aeriofos’, [Athens 1835: From oil lamps to the gas], www.protothema.gr, 2/2/2015.

  74. 74.

    Ephemeris ton Kyrion (newspaper), Athens, 20/03/1888, issue 54, p. 6.

  75. 75.

    See more: Xenopoulos, Gr., ‘106 chronia apo tote pou kinithike ho Elektrikos Sidirodromos’, [106 years since the Electric Trains started operating], www.somsyntaxiouchon-isap.gr

  76. 76.

    Most likely she was his wife.

  77. 77.

    The unauthorized embankment of Greece’s Allies in Piraeus and the city’s capture by them took place in November 1916. Greece’s tearing apart by the ‘National Schism’ had its roots in the clash between the Greek Prime Minister E. Venizelos and King Constantine over the country’s foreign policy and diplomacy during the First World War. Venizelos proposed a plan that was based on an alliance between the Greek country and the Triple Entente. To the contrary, the King opted for a neutral position. Venizelos was forced to resign twice while Greece was divided between north and south. In the north, the revolutionary government under Venizelos, along with General Danglis and Admiral Kountouriotis, had its headquarters in Thessaloniki, while in Athens it was stationed at the official government that had been appointed by Royal Decree. See more in: Koliopoulos, J., & Veremis, Th., (2002) Greece: The Modern Sequel. From 1831 to the Present, Hurst & Company, London, pp. 54, 128, 271, 284–285, 363, 366.

  78. 78.

    It was during this period that Athens was fiercely bombarded. The mayor of Piraeus—A. Panagiotopoulos—a Venizelos’ supporter, drove his car around the city during the night in an effort to calm down the worried citizens. See more in: Krasonikolakis, D., (2015), ‘«Noemvriana»—Hoi Galloi katalamvanoun ton Peiraia (epicheirisi «Hellenikos Hesperinos»)’, [The November issue: The French occupied Piraeus: The Operation of ‘Hellenikos Vespers’), dimitriskrasonikolakis.blogspot.gr in: pireorama.blogspot.gr: https://skolix216.wordpress.com (published online: November 21, 2015).

  79. 79.

    Pavlos Damalas contributed a lot to sports being an active member of the subcommittee for the organization of the Olympic Games. Linardos, P., (2013), ‘Ho protoporos Pavlos Damalas’, [The pioneering Pavlos Damalas], https://www.tovima.gr (published online: April 20th, 2013).

  80. 80.

    I speculate that Pavlos was her husband though there is no information supplied on the matter.

  81. 81.

    Pavlos Damalas was son of the mayor of the island of Syros, Amvrosios Damalas, and of Kalliopi Ralli, daughter of Loukas Rallis. See more in: Giannitsiotis, J., ibid., p. 317.

  82. 82.

    [MLP], (2016), ‘Ta palia Michanourgeia tou Peiraia’, [The old machine workshops in Piraeus], https://mlp-blo-g-spot.blogspot.com (published online: January, 23rd, 2016).

  83. 83.

    [Pireas Piraeus], (2012), ‘Ergostasia Peireos–Apo tin ATZENTA tou etous 1916’, [The factories in Piraeus as drawn from the yearbook of 1916], (186–192), Pireas-piraeus.blogspot.com (published online: January, 21st, 2012).

  84. 84.

    See more in: www.orykta.gr

  85. 85.

    A woman by the name Athina Spiliotopoulou is referred in the Ephemeris ton Kyrion as being a member of the Piraeus department of the ladies’ society ‘Lykeion ton Hellenidon’ where she gave her valuable services to the ‘Lykeion’ along with the other elite ladies such as, Argyro Feraldi and A.P. Xanthaki. See more in: Ephemeris ton Kyrion, (newspaper), 15th June, 1912, issue 1025, Athens, p. 2117.

  86. 86.

    She was also sister of the great Greek actress, Katina Paksinou.

  87. 87.

    Scrip (newspaper), 25/02/1904, issue 8804, Athens, p. 4.

  88. 88.

    Empros (newspaper), (18/08/1949), issue 1,376, Athens, p. 5.

  89. 89.

    Petropoulos, J., (1997) (Greek Edition), Politiki kai sygkrotisi kratous sto Helleniko vasileio, 1833–1843, MIET (Publishers), Athens, p. 71: Petropoulos, J., (1968), (English Edition), Politics and Statecraft in the Kingdom of Greece (1833–1843), Princeton University Press.

  90. 90.

    Ibid., (Greek Edition), p. 95.

  91. 91.

    On the common characteristics in the formation of the Greek business networks in Austria-Hungary Empire and in Great Britain, see: Chatziioannou, M.-Ch., (2009), ‘Nees Proseggiseis sti meleti ton emporikon diktyon tis Diasporas’, ibid.

  92. 92.

    Seirinidou, V., (2002), Hellenes sti Vienni, 1780–1850, [Greeks in Vienna, 1780–1850], Ph. Dissertation, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, p. 96.

  93. 93.

    Ibid., pp. 94–95.

  94. 94.

    Herlihy, P., (1989), ‘The Greek community in Odessa, 1861–1917’, Journal of Modern Greek Studies, v.7, (235–252), p. 247: On the Greek merchants in Odessa, also see: Herlihy, P., (1979), ‘Greek Merchants in Odessa in the Nineteenth Century’, Harvard Ukrainian Studies, (399–420).

  95. 95.

    Herlihy, P., ‘The Greek community…’, ibid., p. 247.

  96. 96.

    Pepelasis-Minoglou, I., (2007), ‘Women and Family Capitalism in Greece, c. 1780–1850’, The Business History Review, 81:3, (517–538), p. 522.

  97. 97.

    Selekou, O., (1998), He kathimerinotita mias astikis oikogeneias stin Athina: he oikogeneia tou trapeziti Stefanou Frangkiadi, Athina, 1891–1908, [The daily routine of a bourgeois family in Athens: The family of the banker Stefanos Frangkiadis, Athens 1891–1908], Ph. Dissertation, Panteion University, Athens, p. 24.

  98. 98.

    Selekou, O., ibid., p. 29.

  99. 99.

    Ibid., p. 29.

  100. 100.

    Ibid., p. 30.

  101. 101.

    Ibid., p. 30.

  102. 102.

    Harlafti, G., (1993), ‘Emporio kai Naftilia ton 19o aiona. To epicheirimatiko diktyo ton Hellenon tis Diasporas. He «Chiotiki» phasi (1830–1860)’, ibid., p. 91.

  103. 103.

    Ibid., p. 91.

  104. 104.

    Ibid., p. 90.

  105. 105.

    Mandylara, A., (2000), ‘Helleniki Diaspora kai Historiographiki Diaspora. Diadromes, adieksoda, epanektimiseis’, [Greek Diaspora and Historiographical Dispersion: Paths, Impasses, Reevaluations], Mnimon 22, (239–246).

  106. 106.

    In line with these new social perceptions and broad-scale practices, the marriage between the Greek affluent manufacturer by the last name ‘Zarifis’ and the daughter of a French manufacturer, named ‘Terrin’, was not a breaking up of the social norm. Ibid., pp. 245–246.

  107. 107.

    Vikelas,D., (1879), Loukis Laras, (Chapter 8), https://el.wikisource.org/Λουκής_Λάρας

  108. 108.

    Ibid.

  109. 109.

    Delta, P.S., (1991), Anamniseis 1899, [Memories 1899], P.A. Zannas & et al. (eds), Ermis (publishers), Athens, p. 265.

  110. 110.

    Chapman, S., (2005), The Rise of Merchant Banking, Taylor & Francis, p. 95.

  111. 111.

    Kastoria, a flourishing town in northern Greece and famous for its picturesque lake, was a busy area during eighteenth century. This was due to the fact that its inhabitants were mainly engaged in the small-scale industry of fur processing. See more in: Theocharidou, K., (1979), ‘To Archontiko tou Basara stin Kastoria kai he emporiki drastiriotita tis oikogeneias to a’ miso tou 19ou aiona’, [Basara’s mansion in Kastoria and the family’s trading activities in the first half of nineteenth century], Makedonika 19(1), Society for Macedonian Studies, Thessaloniki, (298–327).

  112. 112.

    On the architecture and the use of the rooms of the mansions in Kastoria, see: Theocharidou, K., ‘To Archontiko tou Basara stin Kastoria’, ibid., (298–327).

  113. 113.

    From this position I would like to thank the staff of the ‘Laografiko Mouseio Kastorias’ for supplying me with the above information and for showing me the room.

  114. 114.

    See more on the matter in: museumfinder.gr/item/laografiko-moyseio-kastorias-neratzi-aivazi

  115. 115.

    Ibid.

  116. 116.

    Ibid.

  117. 117.

    In the same town we also encounter rich ladies and their husbands being donors to the church for charity purposes. For example, according to number 2754 ecclesiastical codex of the Archbishop of Kastoria, lady Elaia—spouse of Chrysos Betlis—and also lady Kseno—wife of Georgios Betlis—as well as the lord K. Betlis, had been donors to the above church. See more in: Theocharidou, K., ibid., p. 324, footnote 1.

  118. 118.

    Vikelas, D., Loukis Laras, ibid., p. 189.

  119. 119.

    Vikelas, D., (1908), He Zoe mou: Paidikai Anamniseis-Neanikoi Chronoi, [My life: Childhood Memories - YouthTimes], (published by) Syllogos pros Diadosin Ofelimon Vivlion, Athens, p. 47.

  120. 120.

    In London, during eighteenth century, many Greek merchants married British women as they held slim chances of finding Greek ladies to marry. See more in: Tziovas, D., (ed.), (2016), Greek Diaspora and Migration Since 1700: Society, Politics and Culture, Routledge, London &New York, p. 37.

  121. 121.

    Vikelas, D., Loukis Laras, ibid., p. 214.

  122. 122.

    Kardases, V., (2001), Diaspora Merchants in the Black Sea: The Greeks in Southern Russia, 1775–1861, Lexington Books, New York, p. 162.

  123. 123.

    The firm of Marco Sevastopoulo(s) was based in Odessa and it traded grain. The Constantinople-based firm was probably a branch. See more in: Herlihy, P., (1989), ‘The Greek Community in Odessa, 1861–1917’, ibid., p. 244.

  124. 124.

    In Odessa, the middle-class women as well as those of the lower classes, formed the majority of the Greek female workforce at the turn of the nineteenth century. Their inclusion or noninclusion in the labor market depended on the finances of their family and more especially on the ability of male breadwinners to financially support them, or not. See more in: Sifneos, E., (2010), ‘Rentiers, teachers and workers: Greek women in late nineteenth-century Odessa’, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 34:2 (182–200), (published online: July 18th, 2013).

  125. 125.

    The interest rate reached at 30–35 percent. See: Kardases, V., ibid., p. 93.

  126. 126.

    Their uncle, Theodoros Avgerinos, had been appointed as the Russian consul in Smyrna. See: Kardases, V., ibid., p. 93.

  127. 127.

    Vikelas, D., He Zoe mou, ibid., p. 169.

  128. 128.

    Kardases, V., ibid., p. 170.

  129. 129.

    The names ‘Tzetiris’ and ‘Tzetiri’ refer to the same family and to the same name. The first has got the masculine ending ‘s’, while the second has the feminine ending that takes no ‘s’, according to the Greek grammar.

  130. 130.

    Chatziioannou, M.,-Ch., Nees prosegiseis… ibid., p. 153.

  131. 131.

    Maurer, G.L., (1834), Das Griechische Volk in öffentlicher Kirchlicher und privatrechtlicher Bezierhung, (2 vols), vol. I, p. 133, vol. II, pp. 432–433.

  132. 132.

    Petropoulos, J.A., Politiki…, ibid., p. 72.

  133. 133.

    Vikelas, D., He Zoe mou…, ibid., pp. 328–329.

  134. 134.

    Trikoupis, S., (1853), Historia tis Hellenikis Epanastateos [History of the Greek Revolution], vol. A’, Aggelidou (publishers), London, p. 23.

  135. 135.

    Anemodoura, M., (2008), ‘Filiki Etaireia’, Encyclopedia of the Hellenic World, Black Sea, footnote 13, http://www.ehw.gr/I.asx?id=11106

  136. 136.

    Katsiardi-Hering, O., (2007), ‘Adelfotita, compania, koinotita. Gia mia typologia ton Hellenikon koinotiton tis kentrikis Evropis, me aformi to agnosto katastatiko tou Miskolc (1801)’, [Confraternity, ‘Company’, community. At a typology of the Greek communities in central Europe, on the occasion of the unknown statutes of Miskolc (1801)], Eoa kai Esperia 7, (247–310), p. 267.

  137. 137.

    Galani, K., (2016), ‘He Helleniki koinotita tou Londinou ton 19o aiona. Mia koinoniki kai oikonomiki proseggisi’, [The Greek community based in London. A social and economic approach], Ta Historika (63), pp. 60–61.

  138. 138.

    Herhily, P., ‘The Greek Community…’, ibid., p. 246.

  139. 139.

    Ibid., 248.

  140. 140.

    Vikelas, D., Loukis Laras, ibid., Chapter 4.

  141. 141.

    Orfanou, A., (2015),‘The Upper Bourgeoisie Education of the Greek Diaspora in Egypt in the Late Nineteenth Century Through Penelope Delta’s (1874–1941) Literature’, Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, vol. 4:1, MCSER Publishing, Rome, pp. 17–18.

  142. 142.

    Vikelas, D., He zoe mou…, ibid., p. 337.

  143. 143.

    Vikelas, D., He zoe mou, ibid., pp. 65–67.

  144. 144.

    Delta, P., Anamniseis, ibid., p. 6.

  145. 145.

    Ibid., p. 12.

  146. 146.

    Georgopoulos, D., (2015), To Gynaikeio fylo sta logotechnika kai aftobiografika keimena tis Penelopes Delta: Gynaikeioi logotechnikoi charactires kai emfyles apotyposeis tous. [Gender in literary and autobiographic texts of Penelope Delta: feminine literary characters and gendered presentations], Ph. Dissertation, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, pp. 79–80.

  147. 147.

    Delta, P., Anamniseis, ibid., p. 420.

  148. 148.

    Seirinidou, V., ibid., pp. 102–103.

  149. 149.

    Ibid., p. 104. By contrast, in Vienna the Jews who lived separately from their families were only the 1.4 percent.

  150. 150.

    Vikelas, D., He zoe mou, ibid., pp. 20–21.

  151. 151.

    Seirinidou, V., ibid., p. 104.

  152. 152.

    Ibid., p. 104.

  153. 153.

    Ibid., p. 105.

  154. 154.

    Ibid., p. 105.

  155. 155.

    In London—for instance—the social stratification was formulated in the merchants’ clan according to the size of the wealth and the capital they possessed. An example is the annual catalog that was published by the Greek fraternity including a call for assembly and the subsequent election of new wardens of the Greek church. The list did not include the members’ names in an alphabetical order, but it was based on the principle of how big was the size of their business firm. The capitalist family who occupied the top positions in the catalog was Rallis family. See more in: Vikelas, D., He zoe mou, ibid., pp. 330–331.

  156. 156.

    Seirinidou, V., ibid., p. 105.

  157. 157.

    Syggros, A., (1908), Apomnimonevmata [Memoirs], 3 vols., Estia (publishers) Athens, vol. A’, p. 302.

  158. 158.

    Ibid., p. 302.

  159. 159.

    According to a sample of twenty-nine widows, fourteen were heads of their family, while the rest lived with their blood relations or their son or son-in-law who was in charge of the management of the household. However, the young widows returned to their parental home after their husband’s death. See more in: Seirinidou, V., ibid., p. 106.

  160. 160.

    Papakonstantinou, K., (2002), Hellenikes emporikes epicheiriseis stin kentriki Evropi to deftero miso tou 18ou aiona: He oikogeneia Pondika, [Greek commercial firms in central Europe in the second half of eighteenth century: The Pondikas family], Ph. Dissertation, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, p. 233.

  161. 161.

    Ibid., p. 234.

  162. 162.

    Ibid., p. 234.

  163. 163.

    Ibid., p. 234.

  164. 164.

    Lee, R., (2011), ‘Commerce and Culture: A Critical Assessment of the Role of Cultural Factors in Commerce and Trade from 1750 to the Early Twentieth Century’, in: Lee, R., (ed.), Commerce and Culture: Nineteenth Century Elites, Franham Ashgate, p. 21.

  165. 165.

    Sifneos, E., (2013),‘Family firms in the Azov Sea Region, 1850–1917’, Business History Review, 87:02, (279–308), p. 303.

  166. 166.

    Vikelas, D., He zoe mou, ibid., p. 60.

  167. 167.

    Ibid., p. 5.

  168. 168.

    Syggros, A., Apomnimonevmata… ibid., v.A’, p. 1. In this point we note the completely different view of the Russian Law that was first published in 1832 dictating that the ‘husband shall not acquire, through marriage, the right to use his wife’s property’. With this legislative decree women became independent in managing their dowries and in handling property matters. See: Ulianova, G., (2010), ‘Female entrepreneurial elite in nineteenth-century Russia: «noble» and «merchant» patterns’, Conference Paper presented at the Eighth European Social Science History Conference, University of Ghent, Belgium, 13–16 April.

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Thanailaki, P. (2021). Familiocracy in the Greek Business Elite Class: Endogamy and Other Cultural Traits. In: Gendered Stereotypes and Female Entrepreneurship in Southern Europe, 1700-1900. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66234-9_2

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