Abstract
The cases of smuggling are not only limited to Libya and Sudan but are quite prevalent across the African continent. This chapter therefore considers several other cases of smuggling across the continent to give the reader a holistic view of how serious the scourge of smuggling is in Africa. The cases that are examined in detail in this chapter are those of the West African trade which is largely though not entirely a product of ASGM mining and is seemingly driven by various taxation regimes in the gold exporting countries. Gold smuggling has become a central feature of the growing ASGM activities in West Africa and a source of considerable revenue and foreign exchange losses for the countries where this activity occurs. While previously much of the quantitative analysis of gold smuggling was purely speculative, what has now changed is trade data from Dubai, now permits for the first time a more accurate, though by no means conclusive, estimation of the value of gold trade and the potential tax and royalty losses that stem from smuggling. Dubai has emerged by far the biggest trading centre for ASGM gold from the African continent though it is by no means the only relevant market.
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Notes
- 1.
South Africa produced a total of 1.5 billion carats of gold from the Witwatersrand fields from discovery in the 1860s until 2000. See Davenport, J., (2013). ‘Digging Deep: A History of Mining in South Africa’. Johnathan Ball, Johannesburg see page 134.
- 2.
Felix Njini. (June 9, 2019). ‘The African Nation Built on Gold Loses Its Crown to a Rival’ https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-06-09/nation-built-on-gold-loses-its-african-crown-to-rival-ghana downloaded July 2019. See also Elizabeth Ofosuah Johnson (June 10, 2019) ‘Ghana overtakes South Africa to become the world’s top gold producer’ https://face2faceafrica.com/article/ghana-overtakes-south-africa-to-become-the-worlds-top-gold-producer downloaded July 2019 Ghana gold production rose to 4.8 million ounces of gold which was greater than SA production at 4.2 million ounces. (Ghana Chamber of Mines)
- 3.
Mc Mahon, G. (2010). The World Bank’s Evolutionary Approach to Mining Sector Reform Extractive Industries for Development Series #19 see pp.31-33 for a complete list of World Bank programmes in the mining sectors. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/550381468330990173/The-World-Banks-evolutionary-approach-to-mining-sector-reform Downloaded July 2019
- 4.
See: Alex Benkenstein. (2012). ‘Artisanal and Small-scale Mining in Africa: Opportunities and Challenges’. SAIIA; and UNEP. (2013). ‘Global Mercury Assessment 2013: Sources, Emissions, Releases and Environmental Transport.’ just to list a few.
- 5.
Bhagwati, J. and B. Hansen (1973), ‘A Theoretical Analysis of Smuggling’, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 87(2), 172–87. See also Deardorff, A. V. and W. Stolper. (1990), ‘Effects of Smuggling under African Conditions: A Factual, Institutional, and Analytic Discussion’, WeltwirtchaftlichesArchiv, 126(1), pp. 116–141, see also the review in Azam, J. P. (2007), Trade, Exchange Rate, and Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa (New York: Cambridge University Press).
- 6.
Abdalla MA. (2009). ‘Understanding of the Natural Resource Conflict Dynamics’ Institute of Security Studies, Pretoria, Paper 194
- 7.
Habashi F. (2016). Gold—An Historical Introduction in Adams. M.D. (ed) Gold Ore Processing: Project Development and Operations. • 2nd Edition, Elsevier
- 8.
See: Sebastian Prange. (2005). ‘Trust in God—But Tie Your Camel First.’ The Economic Organization of the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade between the Fourteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. London School of Economics. Working Paper No. 11/05.Downloaded from: http://www.lse.ac.uk/Economic-History/Assets/Documents/Research/GEHN/GEHNWP11SP.pdf; Alistair Boddy-Evans. (August 12, 2018). Trade across the Sahara. ThoughtCo. Retrieved from: https://www.thoughtco.com/trade-across-the-sahara-44245; Ewald, J. (1992).Slavery in Africa and the Slave Trades from Africa. The American Historical Review, 97(2), 465-485. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/2165729; and Boahen, A. Adu. ‘The Caravan Trade in the Nineteenth Century.’ The Journal of African History, vol. 3, no. 2, 1962, pp. 349–359. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/179760
- 9.
Walter Rodney. (1969). ‘Gold And Slaves On The Gold Coast ‘Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana Vol. 10 (1969), pp. 13-28.
- 10.
Other reasons being: the nature of the sector (informal)—more so in the ASM/ASGM sector as opposed to LSM/LSGM, differences in export tax policy, geography/poor border security and a lack of traceability just to mention a few.
- 11.
A commodities super cycle is approximately a 10-35 year trend of rising commodity prices and as earlier mentioned, Gold prices have experienced their longest nominal and real price increase since the end of the Bretton Woods system in 1973. For more on the length of commodity super cycles see: Frik Els. (2013). 160-year study of real commodity prices sees beginning of the end of the super cycle. Retrieved from: http://www.mining.com/160-year-study-of-real-commodity-prices-23066/; Bilge Erten and José Antonio Ocampo. (2012). Super cycles of commodity prices since the mid-nineteenth century. DESA Working Paper No. 110. Downloaded from: http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2012/wp110_2012.pdf; and Cuddington, J., and Jerrett, D. (2008). Super cycles in real metal prices? IMF Staff Paper 55 (4) to mention just a few.
- 12.
For instance, see: Onour, I. (Jan 2018). The Cost of Mismanagement of Gold Production in Sudan’ MPRA paper https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/83921/downloaded August 2018.
- 13.
The gold is likely to have been part of the previous accumulation by Qaddafi. See: Hillary Clinton Email Archive: France’s Client & Qaddafi’s Gold. Retrieved from: http://archive.is/pBkCO#selection-1097.0-1097.32 downloaded September 2018.
- 14.
See Marcena Hunter. (2018). Curbing Illicit Mercury and Gold Flows in West Africa: Options for a Regional Approach. UNIDO. Downloaded from: http://globalinitiative.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Final-UNIDO-ECOWAS-gold-and-mercury-report-English.pdf; Blore, S. (2015). Contraband Gold in the Great Lakes Region. In-region Cross-border Gold Flows Versus Out-region Smuggling. Partnership Africa Canada. Downloaded on 21st May 2018 from: https://www.africaportal.org/documents/13422/Contraband_Gold_in_the_Great_Lakes_Region_1_May-2015.pdf
- 15.
See: Ogier, T., Ambler, M., and Teow, Y. J. (2013). The direct economic impact of gold https://www.gold.org/sites/default/files/documents/PWC_direct_economic_impact_of_gold.pdf Page 20
- 16.
- 17.
See https://thebftonline.com/2018/world/africa/missing-goldhow-ghana-lost-over-us6bn-in-gold-export-revenue-to-major-trading-partners/ & https://www.myjoyonline.com/business/2019/February-6th/3-tax-on-small-scale-gold-exports-starts-soon.php However, it should be noted that Authorities have found it increasingly difficult getting small scale and artisanal miners to pay the withholding tax even with downward adjustments of the levy.
- 18.
Do note that both the royalty and export rate for large scale mining differ significantly to artisanal mining. See: http://www.nortonrosefulbright.com/knowledge/publications/99188/amendments-to-the-guinean-mining-code#section14
- 19.
The countries included are those in figure 7.2
- 20.
It should be noted that the royalty revenue was also calculated using the discounted gold price. Ideally the royalty rate should be calculated with the global average price. However, given the underpricing practice, this method should suffice.
- 21.
WTO Trade Policy Review WEAMU- Annex 5 Mali p 316.
- 22.
WTO Trade Policy Review WEAMU—Annex 5 Mali p 346
- 23.
This is based on the assumption that all exports from Mali to the UAE are Non-monetary gold.
- 24.
It should be noted that Mali maintains a stamp duty on gold exports which is in effect an export tax. See: Frost, S. (1 Mar 2017). Mali revealed as hub for illicit gold. Materials World magazine. Retrieved on the 19th may 2018 from: GOLD%20EXPORT%20TAXES/Mali%20revealed%20as%20hub%20for%20illicit%20gold%20_%20IOM3.htm
For the actual article, see: Martin, A., and Helbig de Balzac, H. (2017). The West African El Dorado: Mapping the Illicit trade of Gold in Côte d’Ivoire, Mali and Burkina Faso. Partnership Africa Canada. Downloaded on 21st May 2018 from: https://www.africaportal.org/documents/16683/PAC_El_Dorado_Jan_2016_EN.pdf
- 25.
An extensive sociological literature exists on gold trade from Burkina Faso see K. Werthmann. (2000). ‘Gold Rush in West Africa. The appropriation of ‘Natural’ resources: non-industrial gold mining in South-Western Burkina Faso’. Sociologus, 50 (1) (2000), pp. 90-104; Werthmann. (2003). ‘The president of the gold-diggers: sources of power in a gold mine in Burkina Faso’. Ethnos, 68 (1) (2003), pp. 95-111; K. Werthmann. (2003). Cowries, gold and bitter money: non-industrial gold-mining and notions of Ill-Gotten wealth in Burkina Faso. Paideuma, 49, pp. 105-124.
- 26.
Martin, A., and Helbig de Balzac, H. (2017). The West African El Dorado: Mapping the Illicit trade of Gold in Côte d’Ivoire, Mali and Burkina Faso. Partnership Africa Canada. page 9 Downloaded on 21st May 2018 from: https://www.africaportal.org/documents/16683/PAC_El_Dorado_Jan_2016_EN.pdf; and https://www.reuters.com/article/mali-gold-exports-idUSL5N0X53FU20150408 as well as https://www.reuters.com/article/mali-gold-idUSL3N0OD2YU20140527 for more on ASGM data inconsistency
- 27.
See: Frost, S. (1 Mar 2017). Mali revealed as hub for illicit gold. Materials World Magazine. Retrieved from: https://www.iom3.org/materials-world-magazine/news/2017/mar/01/mali-revealed-hub-illicit-gold
- 28.
Front Page Africa May 29, 2018 ‘Liberia Losing Gold, Diamond Revenue To Sierra Leone & Guinea https://frontpageafricaonline.com/business/liberia-losing-gold-diamond-revenue-to-sierra-leone-guinea/downloaded 25th November 2018.
- 29.
See: Sierra Leone. (2017). Trade Policy Review. World Trade Organization. Under—Mining, Page 61.
- 30.
See: http://www.nortonrosefulbright.com/knowledge/publications/99188/amendments-to-the-guinean-mining-code#section14 under—Tax and customs regime
- 31.
See Op.cit. Marcena Hunter (2018). and https://frontpageafricaonline.com/business/liberia-losing-gold-diamond-revenue-to-sierra-leone-guinea/
- 32.
See WTO Trade Policy Review NIGERIA pp. 44
- 33.
See Ministry of Mines and Steel Development, Nigeria. Downloaded from http://www.minesandsteel.gov.ng/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/ROYALTY-RATES.pdf
- 34.
An extensive literature exists on gold trading and smuggling from Benin see Grätz T. (2004). ‘Gold Trading Networks and the Creation of Trust: A Case Study from Northern Benin’ Africa, Volume 74, Issue 2, May 2004, pp. 146-172
- 35.
The World Bank data base on large scale gold mines in Africa contains no mines from either Benin or Togo, with Nigeria only having one at an ‘advanced stage’. See: World Bank. (2017). Transfer Pricing in Mining with a Focus on Africa: A Reference Guide for Practitioners, Washington, pages 235-240. The authoritative annual GFMS survey does not place any of these countries as major producers. See GFMS Thomson Reuters. (2018). GFMS gold survey 2018. London: Thomson Reuters. Downloaded from: http://www.hkiga.com/uploads/file/20180813/20180813181645787.pdf
- 36.
Golub S. (2012). ‘Entrepot Trade and Smuggling in West Africa: Benin, Togo and Nigeria. ‘The World Economy’, September 2012, pp. 1-24 see also Perret, C. (2002). ‘Le Commerce de Vehicules d’Occasion au Benin: Problematique Regionale et Aspects Nationaux’, Economie Regionale (LARES), October 2002.
- 37.
Raballand, G., and E. Mjekiqi. (2010). ‘Nigeria’s Trade Policy Facilitates Unofficial Trade and Impacts Negatively Nigeria’s Customs Efficiency and Economy’, in V. Treichel (ed.), Putting Nigeria to Work (Washington, DC: World Bank), pp. 203–26.
- 38.
Carsten Lassen et al., Mercury trade and use for artisanal and small-scale gold mining in sub-Saharan Africa. World Bank, 2016. http://cegemi.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Mercury-in-Sub-Saharan-Africa-country-reports-12-December-2016.pdf downloaded may 2019.
- 39.
While ECOWAS has a Harmonized rate on paper, (see: The ECOWAS Community of West African States. (2009). ECOWAS Directive on the Harmonization of Guiding Principles and Polices in the Mining Sector. The ECOWAS Community of West African States. Abuja, Nigeria. http://www.documentation.ecowas.int/download/en/publications/Ecowas%20Directive%20and%20policies%20in%20the%20minning%20sector.pdf and Martin, A., and Helbig de Balzac, H. (2017). The West African El Dorado: Mapping the Illicit trade of Gold in Côte d’Ivoire, Mali and Burkina Faso. Partnership Africa Canada. Downloaded from: https://www.africaportal.org/documents/16683/PAC_El_Dorado_Jan_2016_EN.pdf) what is practiced is not the case as is illustrated by Mali. However, it is worth noting that the Mano River Union (MRU)/Member States are seeking to harmonise their Artisanal Mining Fiscal Regimes. See: https://mof.gov.sl/2018/10/24/consultancy-service-to-undertake-study-on-the-harmonization-of-the-artisanal-mining-fiscal-regimes-of-the-mano-river-union-mru-member-states/
- 40.
The colonial administration of Ghana had enacted a Mercury Ordinance in 1933 which effectively banned the use of mercury in gold mining and as a result mining activity shifted to the large miners which were owned by the British. The Mercury Ordinance was finally rescinded in 1989.’ In 1989, three laws were passed with the aim of bringing artisanal gold mining into the official economy. The three laws were the Small Scale Gold Mining
Law (PNDCL 218), the Mercury Law (PNDCL 217) and the Precious Minerals Marketing Corporation
Law (PNDC Law 219)’ see Fui S Tsikata. (1997). The vicissitudes of mineral policy in Ghana’. Resources Policy. Vol. 23, No. 1/2, pp. 9-14.
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Grynberg, R., Singogo, F.K. (2021). Trade and the Smuggling of Gold from West Africa to the UAE. In: African Gold. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65995-0_7
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