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International Conference on the Theory and Application of Cryptology and Information Security

ASIACRYPT 2020: Advances in Cryptology – ASIACRYPT 2020 pp 3–32Cite as

Finding Collisions in a Quantum World: Quantum Black-Box Separation of Collision-Resistance and One-Wayness

Part of the Lecture Notes in Computer Science book series (LNSC,volume 12491)

Abstract

Since the celebrated work of Impagliazzo and Rudich (STOC 1989), a number of black-box impossibility results have been established. However, these works only ruled out classical black-box reductions among cryptographic primitives. Therefore it may be possible to overcome these impossibility results by using quantum reductions. To exclude such a possibility, we have to extend these impossibility results to the quantum setting. In this paper, we study black-box impossibility in the quantum setting.

We first formalize a quantum counterpart of fully-black-box reduction following the formalization by Reingold, Trevisan and Vadhan (TCC 2004). Then we prove that there is no quantum fully-black-box reduction from collision-resistant hash functions to one-way permutations (or even trapdoor permutations). We take both of classical and quantum implementations of primitives into account. This is an extension to the quantum setting of the work of Simon (Eurocrypt 1998) who showed a similar result in the classical setting.

Keywords

  • Post-quantum cryptography
  • One-way permutation
  • One-way trapdoor permutation
  • Collision resistant hash function
  • Fully black-box reduction
  • Quantum reduction
  • Impossibility

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Notes

  1. 1.

    This is an explanation for fully-black-box reduction using the terminology of Reingold, Trevisan, and Vadhan [RTV04]. Since we only consider fully-black-box reductions in this paper, in this introduction, we just say black-box reduction to mean fully-black-box reduction.

  2. 2.

    Though the basic idea is similar to the proof of Simon [Sim98], we explain the description in [AS15] since this is more suitable for explaining how we extend the proof to the quantum setting.

  3. 3.

    Actually, they showed that a random permutation is hard to invert even given a classical advice string.

  4. 4.

    Such a randomized encoder was also used in some works in the classical setting, e.g., [DTT10].

  5. 5.

    Formally, this is proven by using the swapping lemma shown by Vazirani [Vaz98, Lem. 3.1].

  6. 6.

    The definition of “good” given here corresponds to the negation of “bad” defined in the main body.

  7. 7.

    Note that we consider information theoretic encoder and decoder, and we do not care whether they run efficiently.

  8. 8.

    We assume that the queries are always performed in a sequential order (e.g., before each query to \(O_2\), the adversary always makes a query to \(O_1\)), but there is no reason for an adversary to fix the order. We assume this only for an ease of notation. There are multiple ways to fix it, but changes of the order does not essentially affect (im)possibility of reductions.

  9. 9.

    Note that the meaning of the symbol \(O_X\) changes depending on the set that the index X belongs to. \(R_n\) is the set of random coins for the security parameter n, and each coin \(r_n \in R_n\) corresponds to one fixed unitary operator \(O_{r_n}\). \(O_r\) is an infinite family \(\{ O_{r_1},O_{r_2},\dots \}\) for each fixed \(r = (r_1,r_2,\dots ) \in R\), and \(O_n\) is the finite family \(\{O_{r_n}\}_{r_n \in R_n}\) for each fixed n. Each of \(O_r\) and \(O_n\) can be regarded as a subset of O. In addition, \(O_{r,n}\) denotes “the n-th element of \(O_r\)” for each fixed r, which is the same as \(O_{r_n}\).

  10. 10.

    Here we are using the value 2/3 for the threshold, but it does not make any essential difference even if we use another constant c such that instead of 2/3, as long as \(1/2< c < 1\).

  11. 11.

    We sometimes call a sequence of oracles just “oracle”.

  12. 12.

    The original swapping lemma is the special case of Lemma 3 such that \(t=1\).

  13. 13.

    Note that it also excludes possible quantum (fully-black-box) reductions from collapsing hash functions to one-way permutations, since the notion of collapsing is stronger than collision-resistance.

  14. 14.

    Later, we will set \(\hat{{\mathcal {A}}} := {\mathcal {B}}_c\) for a constant c.

  15. 15.

    We introduced Q here just for convenience. Q is an upper bound of both of i) The number of queries made by \({\mathcal {B}}_c\) to f and \(\mathsf{ColFinder}\), and ii) The number of queries to f made by quantum circuits that are queried by \({\mathcal {B}}_c\) to \(\mathsf{ColFinder}\). Because the notations in later proofs become simpler when i) and ii) are the same (i.e., \(q = \eta \)), we introduced Q here.

  16. 16.

    Since \(\mathcal {I}^{f'} \in F_{\mathsf{CC\text {-}qCRH}}\) for any permutation \(f'\), \(\mathsf{Eval}^{f'}_n(\cdot ,\cdot )\) computes a function \(H^{f'}(\cdot ,\cdot )\) for any permutation \(f'\) by definition of \(\mathsf{QC\text {-}qCRH}\). In particular, even when \(\sigma \) is generated by \(\mathsf{Gen}^f(1^n)\) and \(f' \ne f\), \(\mathsf{Eval}^{f'}_n(\sigma ,\cdot )\) computes the function \(H^{f'}(\sigma ,\cdot )\). Hence \(\mathsf{ColFinder}^f_\lambda \) does not return \(\bot \) on the input \(\mathsf{Eval}_n(\sigma ,\cdot )\).

  17. 17.

    Note that it also excludes possible quantum (fully-black-box) reductions from collapsing hash functions to trapdoor permutations, since the notion of collapsing is stronger than collision-resistance.

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Acknowledgements

We thank anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments. Especially, we thank reviewers of STOC 2019 and CRYPTO 2020 who pointed out technical errors in previous versions of this paper.

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  1. NTT Secure Platform Laboratories, Tokyo, Japan

    Akinori Hosoyamada & Takashi Yamakawa

  2. Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan

    Akinori Hosoyamada

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Correspondence to Akinori Hosoyamada .

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  1. Network Security Research Institute (NICT), Tokyo, Japan

    Shiho Moriai

  2. Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore

    Huaxiong Wang

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Hosoyamada, A., Yamakawa, T. (2020). Finding Collisions in a Quantum World: Quantum Black-Box Separation of Collision-Resistance and One-Wayness. In: Moriai, S., Wang, H. (eds) Advances in Cryptology – ASIACRYPT 2020. ASIACRYPT 2020. Lecture Notes in Computer Science(), vol 12491. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64837-4_1

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