Abstract
Coworking spaces (CSs) and makerspaces (MSs), which can be considered as symbolic spaces of the ongoing digital innovation in working and making, are more and more the object of political and media rhetoric. However, they demand further scientific investigation: on the one hand, to better understand their economic outcomes, and their effects on the social and physical environment; on the other, to reflect about strategies and solutions of urban and regional policy and planning in order to support the development of the digital production of goods and services as an occasion of urban and regional regeneration and rebalancing. On the background of research activity, which has been conducted in Italy, with a specific focus on the Milan urban region, the chapter highlights the spatial locations and geographies of CSs and MSs in relation to features of both the built environment and the production system. At the same time, it outlines the experimental approach as well as the weaknesses of related strategies and solutions promoted by urban and regional policy and planning. The chapter contributes not only to dismantle the frequent emphasis on these innovative workplaces but also to exploit their potentialities in connection with multi-scalar territorial contexts. Furthermore, it contributes to support innovation in urban and regional policy and planning, and related tools and mechanisms, going beyond some current strategies and solutions such as the subsidizing policies and building rules, which are often fragmented, and difficult to integrate with the multi-level socio-economic and spatial issues expressed by knowledge-intensive and creative activities, and new manufacturing.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
Specifically, the chapter illustrates some of the outcomes of the FARB research project “New working spaces. Promises of innovations, effects on the economic and urban context” (2017–2019, Politecnico di Milano, DAStU; coordinator: Ilaria Mariotti) and the contribution to the research “POPSU 2—Plateform d’Observation des Projects et Strategies Urbaines 2” (2017, PUCA—Plan Urbanisme Construction Architecture; coordinator: Alain Bourdin).
- 2.
For instance, Cities of Making is a research programme investigating the role of manufacturing in European cities, see: https://citiesofmaking.com/.
- 3.
For more than fifty definitions of the knowledge economy, see Carlaw et al. (2006).
- 4.
For definitions of coworking spaces and makerspaces/Fab Labs, see the Introduction of this edited book and chapter 2.
- 5.
The Key Enabling Technologies of the future include advanced materials and nanotechnology, photonics and micro- and nano-electronics, life science technologies, advanced manufacturing and processing, artificial intelligence and digital security and connectivity.
- 6.
The Milan metropolitan area hosts the highest number of the innovative Italian start-ups officially registered in 2016. On the total amount of 5,443, it hosts 802 innovative start-ups, in comparison with the metropolitan areas of Rome (476), Turin (272), Naples (173), and Bologna (155) (Castiglioni, Pais, 2016). At the same time, the Milan metropolitan area hosts the highest number of the Italian innovative start-ups and SMEs officially registered in 2018. On the total amount of 9,742 in the whole country, it hosts 1,679 innovative start-ups and SMEs, in comparison with the Lombardy Region (2,405) (Comune di Milano, 2018).
- 7.
The Milan municipal area hosts the 6% of Italian firms and the 21% of Italian firms’ sales values. At the same time, the Milan growth of firms is higher than the national one (+0.34% in comparison with +0.20%) (Comune di Milano, 2018).
- 8.
- 9.
See Section 4.
- 10.
See Section 4.
- 11.
For instance: after the first experience of the PoliHub incubator (promoted with Politecnico di Milano in 2012), the new Co-Hub, located in the historical centre; Base, located in the dynamic south-western city sector of Porta Genova/Zona Tortona, by reusing the buildings of the former Ansaldo factory; the LUISS Hub for Makers and Students, located between the historical centre and the new Porta Nuova centrality, an incubator dedicated to makers, students, and digital manufacturing; the ongoing Smart City Lab, located in the dynamic south-eastern city sector of Porta Romana, that aims at becoming an incubator explicitly dedicated to the development of ICT-based goods and services. They are located in the urban core.
- 12.
Considering the 573 new firms supported by the Milan Municipal Administration from 2012 to 2018, 238 are innovative start-ups and SMEs. Out of the total amount of 573 new firms, 52% rely on the service sector, the 35% on the commerce sector, and the 11% in the manufacturing sector. Out of the total amount of the 238 new innovative start-ups and SMEs, 72% relies on the service sector, 22% in the commerce sector, and 4% on the manufacturing sector. Despite its small incidence, Milan is the Italian city able to concentrate on the highest number of manufacturing start-ups (Comune di Milano, 2018).
- 13.
Quarto Oggiaro is a peripheral public housing neighbourhood built in the 1960s for immigrants from southern Italy, within a huge national public estate program. Today it suffers from social segregation, poverty, micro criminality, and an overall high rate of unemployment (youth unemployment is around 70%).
- 14.
270,000 € the first, and 1,400,000 € the second, respectively (Comune di Milano 2018).
- 15.
For instance, the following projects: Acceleratore Impresa Ristretta; Agevola Credito; Alimenta 2 Talent; Coworking spaces; Creare coworkers; Fab-labs spaces; Fare Impresa Digitale; Openagri; Risorse in periferia; Start up in rete; Startupper; Tira su la cler; Tra il dire e il fare; Welcome Business. Through these initiatives, aimed at supporting new firms, the Milan Municipal Administration invested 2.1 million € in 2012; 3.3 million € in 2013; 3.4 million € in 2014; 1.2 million € in 2015; 4.8 million € in 2016; 3.8 million € in 2017; 5.6 million € in 2018. Considering the total amount of 26 million € from 2012 to 2018, it invested 3,17 million € to support existing firms; 11.54 million € in supporting new firms; 1.96 million € to support incubators (Comune di Milano 2018).
- 16.
Just to mention some international examples, we can consider the public policies in New York City and other US cities, in North America (e.g., Levers, Wolf-Powers, 2016; National League of Cities, 2016; Wolf-Powers et al., 2016), or in Amsterdam, Barcelona, Berlin or London, or in the rest of Europe (e.g., Guallart, 2012; Diez Ladera, 2017; Pradel, 2017).
- 17.
See Sect. 4.
- 18.
See Sect. 5.1.
- 19.
See Sect. 5.1.
- 20.
For instance, additional services are not requested.
- 21.
See Sect. 3.
- 22.
That, according to the National Act 56/2014, replaced the former Milan Province.
- 23.
For instance, the regional plan of the Lombardy Region and the urban plans of the 134 Municipalities which the Milan Metropolitan City consists of.
- 24.
See Sect. 5.1.
- 25.
References
Akhavan M, Mariotti I, Astolfi L, Canevari A (2019) Coworking spaces and new social relations: a focus on the social streets in Italy. Urban Sci 3(2):1–11. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci3010002
Anderson C (2012) Makers. The new industrial revolution. Crown Pub, New York
APUR—Atelier Parisien d’Urbanisme (2017) La ville autrement. Initiatives citoyennes, Urbanisme temporaire, Innovations publiques, Plateformes numériques. https://www.apur.org/fr/nos-travaux/ville-autrement-initiatives-citoyennes-urbanisme-temporaire-innovations-publiques-plateformes-numeriques. Accessed 20 May 2020
Armondi S, Bruzzese A (2017) Contemporary production and urban change: the case of Milan. J Urban Technol 24(3):27–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/10630732.2017.1311567
Armondi S, Di Vita S (eds) (2018) Milan: productions, spatial patterns and urban change. Routledge, London-New York
Armondi S, Fini G (2019) The changing spatialities of employment. Geographies of industry and services. In: Leal Filho W, Azul AM, Brandli L, Özuyar PG, Wall T (eds.) Sustainable cities and communities. Encyclopedia of the UN sustainable development goals. Springer Nature, Cham, pp 1–13
Asheim B, Boschma R, Cooke P (2011) Constructing regional advantage: platform policies based on related variety and differentiated knowledge bases. Region Stud 45(7):893–904. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2010.543126
Assolombarda (2018) Milano Scoreboard 2018. Report. https://osservatoriomilanoscoreboard.it/sites/default/files/2018-06/Osservatorio-Milano-2018-ENG.pdf. Accessed 20 May 2020
Assolombarda (2019) Natalità, sopravvivenza e crescita delle startup knowledge intensive: un confronto tra Lombardia e regioni d’Europa. Centro studi Assolombarda, Dipartimento di Ingegneria Gestionale Politecnico di Milano. Booklet 7. https://www.assolombarda.it/centro-studi/booklet-startup-2019. Accessed 20 May 2020
Bagnasco A (1977) Tre Italie. Il Mulino, Bologna
Balducci A (2018) Pragmatism and Institutional actions in planning the metropolitan area of Milan. In: Salet W (ed.) The Routledge handbook of institutions and planning in action. Routledge, London-New York
Balducci A, Fedeli V, Curci F (eds) (2017) Post-metropolitan territories. Looking for a new urbanity. Routledge, London-New York
Becattini G (1979) Dal settore industriale al distretto industriale. Alcune considerazioni sull’unita di indagine dell’economia industriale. Rivista di Economia e Politica Industriale V(1):7–21
Becattini G (2004) Industrial districts. a new approach to industrial change. Cheltenham, Edward Elgar
Bellandi M (2017) New forms of industrial districts. Economia e Politica Industriale, Special Issue on Giacomo Becattini, Industrial Economics and Local Development, 22–38
Birtchnell T, Urry J (2016) A new industrial future? 3D printing and the reconfiguring of production, distribution, and consumption. Routledge, Abingdon
Bolocan Goldstein M (2018) Urban regionalization and metropolitan resurgence: discontinuity and persistence of a spatial dialectic. In: Armondi S, Di Vita S (eds) Milan: productions, spatial patterns and urban change. Routledge, London-New York, pp 36–47
Boltanski L, Esquerre J (2020) Enrichment. A critique of commodities. Cambridge, Polity Press
Boschma R (2005) Proximity and innovation: a critical assessment. Region Stud 39(1):41–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/0034340052000320887
Bryson JR, Taylor M, Cooper R (2008) Competing by design, specialization and customization: manufacturing locks in the West Midlands (UK). Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography 90(2):173–186. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0467.2008.00285.x
Budge K (2018) Making in the city: disjunctures between public discourse and urban policy. Aust Geogr 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049182.2018.1503045
Calabrò, A. (2018). Milano metropoli europea tra cultura politecnica e sharing economy. In: Lodigiani R (ed.) Milano 2018. Agenda 2040. Rapporto Ambrosianeum. Franco Angeli, Milano
Camera di Commercio di Milano (2016) Milano Produttiva 2016. 26° Rapporto. Camera di Commercio di Milano, Milano
Centro Studi PIM (2016) Spazialità metropolitane. Economia, società e territorio. Argomenti e Contributi, 15
Carlaw K, Nuth M, Oxley L, Tohrns D, Walker B (2006) Beyond the hype: intellectual property and the knowledge society/knowledge economy. J Econ Sur 20:633–690. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6419.2006.00262.x
Castiglioni G, Pais I (2016) Lavoratori della conoscenza e innovazione a Milano: luoghi, attori, culture. In: Lodigiani R (ed.) Milano 2016. Idee, cultura, immaginazione e la Città metropolitana decolla. Rapporto Ambrosianeum. Franco Angeli, Milano
Comune di Milano (2018) Dati sulle imprese sostenute dal Comune di Milano 2012–2018. Milano, Comune di Milano
Comune di Milano (2019) Il capitale urbano. Economia e innovazione sociale al servizio della città. https://economiaelavoro.comune.milano.it/sites/default/files/2019-02/Report_CdM_Capitale_Urbano.pdf. Accessed 20 May 2020
De Boyser K, Dewilde C, Dierckx D, Friedrichs J (eds) (2016) Between the social and the spatial. Routledge, London-New York
Diez Ladera T (2017) Seven short reflections on cities, data, economy and politics. In: de Rycke K et al. (ed.) Humanizing digital reality. Springer, Dordrecht. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6611-5
Di Marino M, Lapintie K (2015) Libraries as transitory workspaces and spatial incubators. Libr Inf Sci Res 37(2):118–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lisr.2015.01.001
Di Vita S (2019) Una classificazione dei makerspace italiani. Tra riuso e potenzialità di rigenerazione. Eyesreg 9(3):1–12
Di Vita S (2020) The complexity of the metropolitan planning and governance in milan: the unintentional innovations of an implicit urban agenda. In: Armondi S, De Gregorio Hurtado S (eds) Foregrounding urban agendas: the new urban issue in European experiences of policy-making. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 265–306
D’Ovidio M, Rabbiosi C (eds) (2017) Maker e città. La rivoluzione si fa con la stampante 3d? Fondazione Giangiacomo Feltrinelli: Milan
Doussard M, Schrock G, Wolf-Powers L, Eisenburger M, Marotta S (2018) Manufacturing without the firm: challenges for the maker movement in three U.S. cities. Environ Plann A—Econ Space 50(3):651–670. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0308518X17749709
Eurostat (2017) Eurostat Report COM(2017) 479 final, 13.9.2017. https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep/1/2017/EN/COM-2017-479-F1-EN-MAIN-PART-1.PDF. Accessed 20 May 2020
Florida R (2002) Cities and the creative class. Routledge, London-New York
Gandini A (2015) The reputation economy: understanding knowledge work in digital society. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke
Garcia TA, Pardo T, Nam, (eds) (2015) Smarter as the new urban agenda: a comprehensive view of the 21st century city. Springer, Cham
Garofoli G (2016) Regione urbana Milanese: una metropolizzazione povera. Argomenti e Contributi, 15
Grodach C, Gibson C (2019) Advancing manufacturing? Blinkered visions in U.S. and Australian urban policy. Urban Policy Res 37(3):279–293. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/08111146.2018.1556633
Grodach C, Gibson C, O’Connor J (2017) Manufacturing and cultural production: towards a progressive policy agenda for the cultural economy. City, Cult Soc 10:17–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccs.2017.04.003
Guallart V (2012) The self-sufficient city. Actar, New York
Hatch CJ (2013) Competitiveness by design: an institutionalist perspective on the resurgence of a “Mature” industry in a high-wage economy. Econ Geograp 89(3):261–284. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecge.12009
Herrschel T, Newman P (2017) Cities as international actors. Urban and regional governance: beyond the nation state. Basingstocke, Palgrave McMillan
Johns T, Gratton L (2013) The third wave of virtual work. Harvard Busin Rev 91:66–73
Knieling J, Othengrafen F (eds) (2016) Cities in crisis. Routledge, Abingdon
Levers A, Wolf-Powers L (2016) Planning, social infrastructure, and the maker movement: the view from New York City. Carol Plan J 41:38–52
Manzo C (2019) Fab lab in Europa: diffusione, caratteristiche ed esternalità locali. EyesReg 9(3)
Manzo C, Ramella M (2015) Fab Labs in Italy: collective goods in the sharing economy. Stato E Mercato 3:379–418. https://doi.org/10.1425/81605
Mariotti I (2018) The attractiveness of Milan and the spatial patterns of international firms. In: Armondi S, Di Vita S (eds) Milan: productions, spatial patterns and urban change. Routledge, London-New York, pp 48–59
Mariotti I, Akhavan M (2020) Gli spazi di coworking a Milano: localizzazione ed effetti sul contesto urbano. Ebook Milano City School, Fondazione Giangiacomo Feltrinelli: Milan, pp 146–165
Mariotti I, Pacchi C, Di Vita S (2017) Co-working spaces in Milan: location patterns and urban effects. J Urban Technol 24(3):47–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/10630732.2017.1311556
Marsh P (2015) New Manufacturing: opportunities and Policies. How ideas in production industry can re-energise the world economy, Report for the OECD Centre on Entrepreneurship, SMEs and Local development
McNeill D (2016) Governing a city of unicorns: technology capital and the urban politics of San Francisco. Urban Geograp 37(4):494–513. https://doi.org/10.1080/02723638.2016.1139868
Merkel J (2019) Freelance isn’t free.’ Co-working as a critical urban practice to cope with informality in creative labour markets. Urban Studies, 56(3):526–547. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098018782374
Moriset B (2014) Building new places of the creative economy. The rise of coworking spaces. Paper presented at the 2nd geography of innovation international conference (Utrecht, January 2014)
Moulaert F, McCallum D, Mehmood A, Hamdouch A (eds) (2013) The international handbook on social innovation: collective action, social learning and transdisciplinary research. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, USA
McKinsey & Company (2015) Manufacturing’s next act https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/operations/our-insights/manufacturings-next-act. Accessed 20 May 2020
Morandi C (2019) Radicamento e relazioni di contesto dei makerspace milanesi. EyesReg 9(3)
Morandi C, Paris M (2018) Forms of urban change: nodes of knowledge-based networks as drivers of new metropolitan patterns in southern milan. In: Armondi S, Di Vita S (eds) Milan: productions, spatial patterns and urban change. Routledge, London-New York, pp 84–95
Morandi C, Rolando A, Di Vita S (2016) From smart city to smart region. Digital services for an internet of places. Springer, Cham
National League of Cities (2016) How cities can grow the maker movement. Research Report. https://www.nlc.org/. Accessed 20 May 2020
OECD (2006) OECD territorial reviews. OECD Publishing, Milan, Italy, Paris
Pacchi C (2018) Sharing economy. Makerspaces, Coworking spaces, hybrid workplaces, and new social practices. In Armondi S, Di Vita S (eds.) Milan: productions, spatial patterns and urban change. Routledge, London-New York, pp 73–83
Pasqui G (2018) The last cycle of Milan urban policies and the prospects for a new urban agenda. In: Armondi S, Di Vita S (eds) Milan: productions, spatial patterns and urban change. Routledge, London-New York, pp 133–144
Patti D (2018) The role of Industry 4.0 in the creation of a new urban identity: the case of the AS FABRIK in Bilbao. Techplace online, https://www.techplace.online/the-role-of-industry-4-0-in-the-creation-of-a-new-urban-identity/. Accessed 20 May 2020
Peters MA (2009) Introduction: knowledge goods, the primacy of ideas, and the economics of abundance. In: Peters MA, Marginson P, Murphy P (eds) Creativity and the global knowledge economy. Peter Lang, New York, pp 1–22
Pradel M (2017) Barcellona e le politiche sui maker. Una prima valutazione. In: D’Ovidio M, Rabbiosi C (eds.) Maker e città. Feltrinelli, Milano, pp 117–127
Pratt AC (2008) Creative cities. The cultural industries and the creative class. Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geograp, 90(2):107–117. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0467.2008.00281.x
Schwab K (2017) The fourth industrial revolution. Currency, New York
Scott AJ (ed) (2001) Global city-regions: trends, theory, policy. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Scott AJ (2014) Beyond the creative city: cognitive-cultural capitalism and the new urbanism. Region Stud 48(4):565–578. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2014.891010
Soja E (2011) Regional urbanization and the end of the metropolis era. In: Bridge G, Watson S (eds.) The new Blackwell companion to the city. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford and Chichester
Taylor P (2004) World city networks. A global urban analysis. London-New York, Routledge
Taylor P (2013) Extraordinary cities. Millennia of moral syndromes, world-system and city/state relations. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham
Yigitcanlar T, Inkinen T (2019) Geographies of disruption. Place making for innovation in the age of knowledge economy. Springer, Cham
Van Holm EJ (2017) Makerspaces and local economic development. Econ Develop Quart 31(2):164–217. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891242417690604
Veltz P (2017) La société hyper-industrielle. Le nouveau capitalism productif. Editions du Seuil et La république des idées, Paris
Veugelers R (2017) Remaking Europe: the new manufacturing as an engine for growth. Bruegel, Brussels
Wolf-Powers L, Schrock G, Doussard M, Heying C, Eisenburger M, Marotta S (2016) The maker economy in action: entrepreneurship and supportive ecosystems in Chicago, New York and Portland. Portland State University, Portland
Zukin S (2020) The innovation complex: cities, tech, and the new economy. Oxford University Press, New York
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Armondi, S., Di Vita, S. (2021). The Metamorphosis of Production. Which Issues for Policy and Planning?. In: Mariotti, I., Di Vita, S., Akhavan, M. (eds) New Workplaces—Location Patterns, Urban Effects and Development Trajectories. Research for Development. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-63443-8_14
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-63443-8_14
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-63442-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-63443-8
eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)