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An Introduction to Europe’s Decade of Crises: Solidarity in Practice

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Education and Solidarity in the European Union

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Abstract

This chapter provides an overview of the crises faced by the EU over the past decade. It seeks to reveal the logical sequence of events that has led European citizens towards a lack of trust in political institutions, as well as in solidarity from other member states. However, it also reveals that political institutions face a difficult task in satisfying citizens’ needs and expectations during and after crises, especially when at the same time populist influence over citizens is strong. The two case studies detail events in the UK and Italy that have led to decisive action against the establishment and highlights cases where solidarity has failed the European Union because citizens have to a certain extent felt failed by the European Union.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    European Financial Stability Facility and the European Stability Mechanism.

  2. 2.

    The International Organization for Migration (IOM) defines the term “migrant” as referring to individuals who move away from their home country or place of habitual residence. Note that the term “immigrant” is only used from the perspective of the country of arrival.

  3. 3.

    The IOM, in accordance with the 1951 Convention, defines the term “refugee” as “a person who, owing to a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country, or who not having nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable, or owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it (Convention relating to the status of refugees, adopted 28 July 1951, entered into force 22 April 1954, 189 UNTS 137, Art. 1A(2)).

  4. 4.

    Source: IOM.

  5. 5.

    Source: Eurostat.

  6. 6.

    The IOM defines the term “asylum seeker” as an individual who is seeking international protection. An individual whose claim has not yet been fully decided upon by the country in which it has been submitted.

  7. 7.

    Source: Eurostat.

  8. 8.

    BBC (4 March 2016).

  9. 9.

    The Guardian, 20 April 2015; UNHCR, 21 April 2015.

  10. 10.

    UNHCR, 1 July 2015.

  11. 11.

    Source: UNHCR.

  12. 12.

    IOM, 30 December 2019.

  13. 13.

    Source: Eurostat.

  14. 14.

    BBC, 2 March 2016.

  15. 15.

    BBC, 2 March 2016.

  16. 16.

    New York Times, 6 September 2017.

  17. 17.

    “Migration though the Mediterranean: Mapping the EU response”, European Council on Foreign Relations (ECFR) (http://ecfr.eu).

  18. 18.

    Source: ECFR.

  19. 19.

    Source: European Social Survey N. 16 (2012) in Kriesi (2020).

  20. 20.

    Vox, 31 January 2020.

  21. 21.

    The Guardian, 17 January 1973.

  22. 22.

    Source: Ipsos Mori Issues Index.

  23. 23.

    Source: NatCen Social Research. British Social Attitudes 34 (The vote to leave the EU).

  24. 24.

    Source: Ipsos Mori, 5 May 2016.

  25. 25.

    Source: BMG Research, 7 February 2020.

  26. 26.

    Source: ComRes, 17 May 2016.

  27. 27.

    Source: Kantar, 14 April 2016.

  28. 28.

    Ibid.

  29. 29.

    Ibid.

  30. 30.

    Source: YouGov, London area, 6 June 2016.

  31. 31.

    NatCen Social Research. British Social Attitudes 34 (The vote to leave the EU).

  32. 32.

    Source: NatCen Social Research. British Social Attitudes 34 (The vote to leave the EU).

  33. 33.

    Source: YouGov, 6 June 2016 (British nationals, London area).

  34. 34.

    Source: NatCen Social Research. British Social Attitudes 34 (The vote to leave the EU).

  35. 35.

    Source: Lucid Talk, 2 February 2020.

  36. 36.

    Statistics suggest that the older generation were more likely to be “leave” voters, while the younger generation were more likely to be “remain” voters. The division between the “younger” and “older generation” appears in the age group 45–54 years old, in which 53 per cent voted to remain, while in the next age bracket of 55–64, the figure reduces to 45 per cent. The highest group to vote remain were 18–24 year olds with 72 per cent and 63 per cent of groups 22–34 and 35–44 year olds voted to remain (NatCen Social Research. British Social Attitudes 34 (The vote to leave the EU).

  37. 37.

    Source: Kantar, 14 April 2016.

  38. 38.

    Source: Ipsos Mori, 15 May 2016.

  39. 39.

    Source: Kantar, 17 November 2015.

  40. 40.

    NatCen Social Research. British Social Attitudes 34 (The vote to leave the EU).

  41. 41.

    Ibid.

  42. 42.

    ComRes Survey, 13 June 16.

  43. 43.

    Based on statistics from NatCen Social Research. British Social Attitudes 34 (The vote to leave the EU).

  44. 44.

    Source: UNHCR.

  45. 45.

    The closest point between North Africa and Italy is actually 180 kilometres from the Tunisian peninsula close to Ben Arous to the coast of Marsala and Mazara del Vallo in Sicily. However, the peninsula in Tunisia is for the most part rural coastline without any ports, making the organisations of crossings difficult. Moreover, with the majority of migrants coming from Niger and Libya, the journey would include a substantially longer land-based section for the sake of an additional 45 kilometres by sea for these migrants.

  46. 46.

    Source: United Nations Higher Commission for Refugees (UNHCR), 23 September 2016.

  47. 47.

    Initiated on 17 December 2010, street protests began in Tunisia after a vegetable stall owner set alight to himself outside a local government building in protest after being arrested for not holding a permit. The incident sparked widespread protests, known as uprisings, elsewhere in Tunisia and across a number of other largely Muslim countries including Egypt, Morocco, Libya, Syria and Bahrain, against oppressive regimes and low living standards.

  48. 48.

    Source: Reuters, 14 May 11 and UNHCR in Wright (2014).

  49. 49.

    Source: UNHCR.

  50. 50.

    Source: UNHCR.

  51. 51.

    Ibid.

  52. 52.

    “La più grande tragedia di sempre”, Il Sole 24 Ore, 4 October 2013.

  53. 53.

    “Un mare di cadaveri”, Il Secolo XIX, 4 October 2013.

  54. 54.

    “Partenze a raffica, un gommone dietro l’altro”, La Repubblica, 13 May 2014.

  55. 55.

    “Il bilancio di sangue di Mare Nostrum. Mai così tanti morti in mare”, Il Giornale, 25 August 2014.

  56. 56.

    “Mentre salviamo le vite umane, siamo soli”, La Repubblica, 13 May 2014.

  57. 57.

    “Sono morti che pesano sulla conscienza dei folli a Mare Nostrum. Hanno capito che basta un colpo di telefono e la marina Italian ava a fare il servizio taxi”, Matteo Salvini, 12 May 2014 in Romana Genoviva (2016).

  58. 58.

    “Donne e bimbi chiusi nella stiva. Eravamo in 950, il mare ci ha inghiottiti”, La Repubblica, 20 April 2015.

  59. 59.

    “Niente asilo”, Il Manifesto, 3 September 2015.

  60. 60.

    La Repubblica, 7 January 2016.

  61. 61.

    Source: International Organization for Migration.

  62. 62.

    Source: International Organization for Migration.

  63. 63.

    La Repubblica, 21 September 2011.

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  1. European University Institute, Florence, Italy

    Sarah K. St. John

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  1. Sarah K. St. John
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Correspondence to Sarah K. St. John .

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St. John, S.K. (2021). An Introduction to Europe’s Decade of Crises: Solidarity in Practice. In: Education and Solidarity in the European Union. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-63042-3_8

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