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Transnational Threats

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Border Management in Transformation

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Abstract

Due to the complexity of transnational threats (TNT) the author held a series of technical discussions with senior experts focusing specifically on identified challenges, inter alia, in the areas of crime prevention, law enforcement and criminal justice, migration, crisis and intervention management, inter-agency and international cooperation and the exchange of relevant information in the period of 2014 to 2017.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Luther Bible [73].

  2. 2.

    Note from the author: Kant (*22nd of April 1724, † 12th of February 1804). The German philosopher of the Enlightenment, and the author of the Age of Peace [68], is one of the best-known works of the German philosopher.

  3. 3.

    Klemme [70, p. 100].

  4. 4.

    Kant [68, p. 380].

  5. 5.

    Gaertner [60]. The ‘Cold War’ describes the relationship between the West and East in the decades following the end of the Second World War. The situation at that time could neither be described as a ‘hot war’ nor a ‘stable peace’. The cause of dissonances was the rivalry of two supervisors and their ideological polarities, p. 69.

  6. 6.

    UNDP Human Development Report [104].

  7. 7.

    Daase [28].

  8. 8.

    Gaertner [60]. The term security goes back to the Latin word ‘securus’ and means ‘without worry’ (‘se’ without and ‘cura’ concern), p. 125.

  9. 9.

    Wolfers and Gärtner (ed.) [118, p. 483].

  10. 10.

    Schirmer [84, p. 69].

  11. 11.

    Buzan and Gaertner (ed.) [21, pp. 18–19].

  12. 12.

    Uhl [109, p. 60].

  13. 13.

    Deiseroth and Gaertner (ed.) [29, p. 110].

  14. 14.

    Andren and Gaertner (ed.) [6, p. 11].

  15. 15.

    Gaertner [60]. ‘Internal security’ is the maintenance of the protection of the current state and legal order as well as of the life and liberty of the people of the state. ‘External security’ is the ability of the state to defend, prevent, curb or end external violence, p. 125.

  16. 16.

    Maslow [74]. Maslow (*1908, †1970) was an American psychologist and developer of Maslow’s pyramid, a development model of human needs.

  17. 17.

    Note from the author: BPB [10].

  18. 18.

    Note from the author: Federal Criminal Police Office [48].

  19. 19.

    Daase [28, p. 3].

  20. 20.

    Ibid.

  21. 21.

    Huntington [65]. It is a hypothesis that people’s cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post-Cold War world.

  22. 22.

    Wolfers and Gaertner (ed.) [118, p. 483]. Schirmer [84, p. 69].

  23. 23.

    Note from the author: Federal Criminal Police Office [49]. The aim of dark field research is to gain insights into the overall volume of certain criminal offences, including the so-called (relative) dark field, thus the criminal offences that are not known to the police. While police criminal statistics refer to the ‘Hellfeld’, that is to say the officially registered events (thus only a small section of crime), researchers in the dark field are trying to provide a more comprehensive picture of the scope and structure of crime. For this purpose, the survey of randomly selected persons with regard to their experiences as victims (victim surveys) or perpetrators (offenders’ inquiries) of criminal offences, if they have done so, is used. The experiences with crime identified in the surveys allow (statistical) conclusions to be drawn on the crime rate among the population.

  24. 24.

    Daase [27].

  25. 25.

    Steinberg [93].

  26. 26.

    See

    1. (a)

      European Security Strategy [42, pp. 11–15].

    2. (b)

      Federal Ministry of the Interior Vienna—Austrian Security Strategy [50, pp. 7–8].

    3. (c)

      Federal Ministry of the Interior Berlin—German Cybercrime Security Strategy [51, pp. 3, 6–12].

  27. 27.

    Code of Criminal Procedure of the FRG (StPO—Strafprozessordnung) in the version of the notice of 7th of April 1987 (Federal Law Gazette I, pp. 1074, 1319), as last amended by Law of January 21, 2015 (Federal Law Gazette I p.10) with effect from 27.01.2015. § 100a—Serious offenses within the meaning of para. 2 no. 1 to 11 are […]. http://dejure.org/gesetze/StPO/100a.html (Accessed on 21st October 2016).

  28. 28.

    European Security Strategy EU Council [43, pp. 11–20].

  29. 29.

    Note from the author: Individual serious crimes of the OC were pooled, or additional terms specified in the area of transnational threats.

  30. 30.

    Wagner and Jäger (ed.) [113, pp. 333–341].

  31. 31.

    uni-protokolle.de [120]. Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel [25]

  32. 32.

    Steinberg [94]. The Spanish flu of 1918/19 in Arabia and Syria. The Spanish flu of 1918/19 demanded up to 40 million deaths worldwide. The First World War and the pandemic were at that time the provisional climax of a first wave of globalisation that had been triggered by the revolutions of transport in the 19th century and allowed all kinds of microorganisms to spread worldwide. […].

  33. 33.

    Note from the author: The ‘Russian flu’ broke out in North China in 1977 and spread worldwide until 1978. It cost about the lives of 700.00 people—exclusively infants, children and young adults under 23 years of age. The reason: the virus is the same as that of the Spanish flu—subtype A/H1N1.

    The name ‘swine flu’ is actually wrong: In the currently rampant flu wave has never been an infection of pigs on humans took place. The name comes from the fact that this influenza virus of subtype H1N1 shares a few genomic sequences with a viral type, which also affects pigs. It has its origin in Mexico; the number of the dead has not yet been clarified. Available from: http://tropeninstitut.de/schweinegrippe/Tropeninstitut_Neue_Grippe.pdf (Accessed on 24th October 2016).

  34. 34.

    UN Security Council Resolution 1308 [102] on the Responsibility of the Security Council in the Maintenance of International Peace and Security: HIV/AIDS and International Peacekeeping Operations. Available from: http://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/sub_landing/files/20000717_un_scresolution_1308_en.pdf (Accessed on 24th October 2016).

  35. 35.

    UNMEER [107].

  36. 36.

    Note from the author: The Ebola fever is a serious contagious disease caused by viruses. The virus bears the name of the river Ebola in today’s Democratic Republic of the Congo. There and in Sudan were the first break out in 1976. There are different types of Ebola viruses; depending on the type, infection leads to death in 25–90% of cases. Available from: http://www.unric.org/de/uno-schlagzeilen/27371-un-erklaeren-ebola-ausbruch-zur-bedrohung-von-frieden-und-sicherheit (Accessed on 24th October 2016).

  37. 37.

    WHO [112].

  38. 38.

    Ohliger [80].

  39. 39.

    Note from the author: In particular, the countries of Sierra Leone, Guinea and Liberia were affected.

  40. 40.

    § 15 Residence Act—Rejection.

  41. 41.

    Stoever [97].

  42. 42.

    Schubert and Klein [86]. Short description for the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, founded after the end of the Russian Empire (1917) in December 1922 (Unions Treaty, First Constitution 1924), which was the political centre of the Eastern bloc and real socialism until its final disintegration in 1991 the territory of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) as well as Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. The Supreme Soviet was the highest legislature of the former Soviet Union.

  43. 43.

    Bos and Schmidt (ed.) [19].

  44. 44.

    Note from the author: As an example of the unexplained borderline between sovereign states, the area around the Ferghana valley in Central Asia is chosen, which is a densely populated valley between the Tianshan and the Alai mountains in Central Asia. More than ten million people, 20% of the population of Central Asia, live in the only 300 km long and up to 110 km wide valley. This is generally considered as the cultural centre of Central Asia. The valley extends to the territory of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, and since the disintegration of the Soviet Union many negotiations have been held regarding a mutually recognised border crossing. But the states could not agree on the membership of the controversial border sections. The Ferghana river valley is called ‘boiling bowl’ because of its dense population and the lack of resources. Again and again there are bloody incidents at the Kyrgyz-Uzbek and Tajik-Uzbek borders. The status of the 345 km long Uzbek-Kyrgyz border is unclear. In addition, the tensions in the Uzbek enclaves Soch and Schachimardan in Kyrgyzstan and the Kyrgyz enclave Barak in Uzbekistan intensify. The border is also not adequately secured. This is also an important factor in the instability, because drugs, weapons and goods are smuggled uncontrolled through the Ferghana valley. The tough negotiations on the division of the border usually end with no result. The head of the Kyrgyz security committee, Shamil Atakhanov, said: “The status of hundreds of kilometres of border remains unclear.” Available from: http://de.sputniknews.com/politik/20120323/263145236.html (Accessed on 25th October 2016).

  45. 45.

    BPB [11].

  46. 46.

    Note from the author: The countries of Central Asia are Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.

  47. 47.

    On 1st of January 2015, President Putin and his colleague Alexander Lukashenko (Belarus) and Nursultan Nazarbayev (Kazakhstan) decided to establish the Eurasian Economic Union in Astana, which provides for a free exchange of goods, services, capital and labour. Armenian President Sersh Sargsyan and Kyrgyz President Almasbek Atambayev, who are seeking accession, attended the meeting. Available from: http://www.bpb.de/internationales/europa/russland/186545/chronik-22-mai-5-juni-2013 (Accessed on 25th October 2016).

  48. 48.

    Note from the author: Federalnaja sluschba besopasnosti Rossijskoi Federazii (FSB) means ‘Federal Service for Security of the Russian Federation’.

  49. 49.

    Federal Foreign Office Berlin [52].

  50. 50.

    Note from the author: KGB—Russian: Communitet gossudarstwennoi besopasnosti pri Sowjete Ministrow SSSR.

  51. 51.

    Note from the author: Yugoslavia is also referred to as the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, or as SFR Yugoslavia, or simply SFRJ.

  52. 52.

    Note from the author: The official name of the United Nations is the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Available from: http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=43078#.WBXB43eX-Rs (Accessed on 30th October 2016).

  53. 53.

    Sundhaussen [99].

  54. 54.

    Note from the author: Milošević became the head of the Communist Party in Serbia in May 1986.

  55. 55.

    Sundhaussen [99]: Der Zerfall Jugoslawiens und seine Folgen (The disintegration of Yugoslavia and its consequences).

  56. 56.

    Note from the author: UCK (Albanian: Ushtria Çlirimtare e Kosovës) was a paramilitary unit that saw itself as the Liberation Army of Kosovo. The means of the UCK was the armed conflict with the objective of achieving independence. Available from: http://www.bpb.de/politik/hintergrund-aktuell/68855/drei-jahre-kosovo-16-02-2011 (Accessed on 1st November 2016).

  57. 57.

    Amnesty International [3].

  58. 58.

    European Union Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo—EULEX [44 to present].

  59. 59.

    COUNCIL JOINT ACTION [22]124/CFSP.

  60. 60.

    Huntington [65, pp. 267, 559]. Cited by Ola Tunander, “New European Dividing Lines?” In Vlater, Angell (eds.): Norway Facing a Changing Europe: Perspectives and Options (1992, p. 55).

  61. 61.

    Ibid., p. 264.

  62. 62.

    Note from the author: Brzeziński, Zbigniew is a Polish-American political scientist. Together with Henry Kissinger and Samuel P. Huntington, he is one of the leading American globalists. Brzeziński was a security adviser to US President Jimmy Carter (1977–1981).

  63. 63.

    Huntington [65, p. 266].

  64. 64.

    Huntington [65]. H. distinguishes in his theses the great contemporary cultural circles as follows: The Sinian, Japanese, Hindu, Islamic, South American and even Western cultural circle. H. describes the term ‘West’ in a general sense, which was once called the Christian Occident. Thus, the West is the only cultural circle that is designated with a cardinal direction and not with the name of a particular nation or religion, pp. 57–60.

  65. 65.

    Ibid. In May 1992, the Crimea parliament voted for independence from Ukraine. This was later revoked. The Russian parliament voted to annul the cession of the Crimea to the Ukraine in 1954, p. 267.

  66. 66.

    Federal Ministry for Europe, Integration and Foreign Affairs [121].

  67. 67.

    Clausewitz [26]. Available from: http://www.clausewitz.com/readings/VomKriege1832/Book1.htm#2 (Accessed on 1st November 2016).

  68. 68.

    Note from the author: The peninsula of Crimea is according to the prevailing opinion international state territory of Ukraine.

  69. 69.

    BPB [12]—On 8th of August 2008, during the night Georgian troops marched into Tskhinvali, the capital of South Ossetia. The government in Tbilisi wanted to regain control of the province, which since independence of Georgia in 1991 has been striving for its own statehood. Russia announced retaliation and replied with a military offensive on the defence of South Ossetia—on the grounds of protecting its citizens in the Georgian province. The Russian Foreign Ministry said that Georgia’s intervention in the neighbouring Republic had broken the 2006 peace agreement between the two countries. The conflict also spread to the Georgian province of Abkhazia, which also strived for state independence.

  70. 70.

    Encyclopaedia of Legal Philosophy [31].

  71. 71.

    Jellinek [67]. Verhältnis Staat—Staatsgrenzen, p. 394. Benz [17, p. 54]. Stern [96].

  72. 72.

    Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States [76] Art. 1 The state as a person of international law should possess the following qualifications: (a) a permanent population; (b) a defined territory; (c) government; and (d) capacity to enter into relations with the other states.

  73. 73.

    Schubert and Klein [87]. Bonn: Dietz 2011: International law is a collective term for all legal norms that govern the relationship between the (independent) states and the relations between the individual states and the international organisations. In contrast to national legislation, the international law cannot be enforced by a central authority, but is dependent on the recognition of the respective states. International law is the result of treaties (i.e. agreements, conventions, pacts, etc.) dealing with the recognition of foreign territories, the restriction of military action, diplomatic exchange and traffic, mediation of disputes, questions of international trade, etc. Of central importance are the constitution of the United Nations (United Nations Charter) of 1945, the UN Declaration of Human Rights, the Conventions and Agreements of the Council of Europe.”

  74. 74.

    Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development [53].

  75. 75.

    United Nations [110].

  76. 76.

    Wissen.de [117].

  77. 77.

    Failed State Index [46].

  78. 78.

    Ibid.

  79. 79.

    Heimerl [62].

  80. 80.

    United Nations [111].

  81. 81.

    Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe [79].

  82. 82.

    BPB [13].

  83. 83.

    Elger [30].

  84. 84.

    BPB [13].

  85. 85.

    GlobalSecurity [61].

  86. 86.

    Klausing [69]. “In general, the term Taliban means nothing more than a student, because in Arabic is called Talib student. […]. A student who is educated in the sunitic legal faith in a Madrassa, which is a conservative Islamic school, is called in Arabic Talib (student). […] Many such Madrassa are located not only in Afghanistan but also in Pakistan, such as in Quetta, Peshawar, or Karachi.”

  87. 87.

    NATO [77]. ISAF Mandate—ISAF has a peace-enforcement mandate under Chapter VII of the UN Charter and nine UN Security Council Resolutions Nr. 1386, 1413, 1444, 1510, 1563, 1623, 1707, 1776 und 1833 relate to ISAF. These are not so-called ‘UN blue helmet missions’, but rather peacekeeping missions under the responsibility of the participating States. Available from: http://www.nato.int/isaf/topics/mandate/ (Accessed on 4th November 2016).

  88. 88.

    Gaertner [60]. Asymmetric wars are characterised by the great inequality between the counterparties. A war party is so subdued that it cannot openly engage in the armed struggle with conventional means, p. 79.

  89. 89.

    Barnett [16]. Today’s Challenge to U.S. Military Power.

  90. 90.

    United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime [122].

  91. 91.

    Ibid.

  92. 92.

    Wagner [114]. Elaboration of a comprehensive assessment of the Afghan Law Enforcement Agencies in Countering Organised Crime and Drugs in relation to porous border security and management.

  93. 93.

    Note from the author: General Mohammed Daud Daud was the chief policeman of Northern Afghanistan and commander of the 303 Pamir Corps elite unit and enjoyed the highest reputation as the most effective and central opponent of the Taliban. He was one of the proponents and supporters of democratic state formation. On 28th of November 2011, General Daud Daud was killed in a targeted bombing act by the Taliban. Available from: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/8543955/General-Daud-Daud-and-at-least-two-German-soldiers-killed-by-suicide-bomb.html (Accessed on 6th November 2016).

  94. 94.

    Washington Post [115].

  95. 95.

    Wagner [114]. Elaboration of a comprehensive assessment of the Afghan Law Enforcement Agencies in Countering Organised Crime and Drugs in relation to porous border security and management.

  96. 96.

    [89].

  97. 97.

    United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime [108].

  98. 98.

    Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge [8, p. 19].

  99. 99.

    Note from the author: Abraham Lincoln (* 1809- † 1865) was the 14th President of the United States of America. His presidency was from 4th March 1861 to 15th of April 1865. Lincoln’s presidency was characterised by the war with the Confederates, and it was thanks to him that the United States can still be called the United States of America, because of the victorious course of the civil war between the North and the South could prevent the division of the USA. Lincoln was the first US president to be murdered by an assassin during his active term.

  100. 100.

    Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung [58] of 18th March 2003.

  101. 101.

    Paech [81].

  102. 102.

    Regional Centre for Political Education Baden-Wurttemberg (2016). Available from: http://www.lpb-bw.de/irak_konflikt.html (Accessed on 7th November 2016).

  103. 103.

    Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (FAZ) (Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung [58] of 18th March 2003).

  104. 104.

    Ibid.

  105. 105.

    Miles [75].

  106. 106.

    AG Friedensforschung [1].

  107. 107.

    Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (FAZ) (Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung [59] of 9th September 2005).

  108. 108.

    Note from the author: At the beginning of the millennium, three fatal terms were defined by the Bush administration: ‘Rogue State’, ‘Axis of Evil’ and ‘Outpost of Tyranny’. These three terms were supposed to create sentiment against the states that declared the US an enemy. Interesting from today’s point of view are the definitions, which were then estimated by the American politicians.

    • ‘Rogue State’ means a state, which is aggressive towards other countries, undermines the stability of entire regions, and at the same time denies international negotiations.

    • ‘Outpost of tyranny’ means countries whose governments disregard human rights.

    • ‘Axis of Evil’ means countries that are upgrading together to threaten world peace.

  109. 109.

    Schmid [85].

  110. 110.

    Note from the author: Since 17th December 2010, the revolution in Tunisia in 2010 and 2011 marks the revolutionary political events and is also called ‘Jasmine Revolution’ outside Tunisia. As a further term, this revolution is also called ‘Arab Spring’.

  111. 111.

    BPB [14].

  112. 112.

    European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) [45].

  113. 113.

    Seibring [88, p. 2].

  114. 114.

    UNHCR [105].

  115. 115.

    UNHCR [106].

  116. 116.

    Zeit-Online [119].

  117. 117.

    Jaeger and Tophofen [66, pp. 23–30].

  118. 118.

    Asseburg [7, pp. 11–17].

  119. 119.

    Lacher [71].

  120. 120.

    Note from the author: Daesh—five letters, which stand for “Al-Dawla al-Islamija fil-Iraq wa al-Sham” that is the “The Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant”. Al-Sham or the Levant describes the area in the eastern Mediterranean, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel and Jordan.

  121. 121.

    BPB [15].

  122. 122.

    Said [83, p. 31].

  123. 123.

    Ibid., p. 81.

  124. 124.

    Steinberg [95].

  125. 125.

    UN Counter Terrorism Committee (UNCTC) [103].

  126. 126.

    UN Security Council Resolution S/RES/2178 (2014).

  127. 127.

    Horsten and Lehr (Hg.) [64]. The extremists of the terrorist Islamic state (IS) destroy much that contradicts their radical ideology—also unique ancient oriental cultural objects and art treasures. Large pieces are smashed, smaller ones transported and sold. The IS uses OC networks, the Internet and auction houses, as the expert Deborah explains. Available from: http://www.art-magazin.de/kunstmarkt/81006/illegaler_kunsthandel_interview (Accessed on 10th November 2016).

  128. 128.

    Blaschke [18].

  129. 129.

    Steinberg [95].

  130. 130.

    Leukefeld [72].

  131. 131.

    New York Times [78].

  132. 132.

    Ibid.

  133. 133.

    Conflict Armament Research [123].

  134. 134.

    Leukefeld [72].

  135. 135.

    Spiegel–Online [91].

  136. 136.

    AG [2].

  137. 137.

    Amnesty International [4, pp. 4–6]. Bruha and Tams [20].

  138. 138.

    Spiegel Online Portal Politik [92].

  139. 139.

    Feinstein [56].

  140. 140.

    Amnesty International Journal [5].

  141. 141.

    Werkhäuser [116].

  142. 142.

    Huntington [65, p. 420].

  143. 143.

    Note from the author: The EU MS security strategies of Germany and Austria are listed here as examples.

    1. (a)

      Federal Ministry of the Interior Vienna—Austrian Security Strategy [54]: Available from: http://www.innensicher.at/files/IS_2016%20Lang_Kernteil_DRUCKFERTIG_2015%2012%2004.pdf (Accessed on 11th November 2016).

    2. (b)

      Federal Ministry of the Interior Berlin—German Cybercrime Security Strategy [55]: Available from: https://www.bmi.bund.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/Themen/OED_Verwaltung/Informationsgesellschaft/cybersicherheitsstrategie-2016.pdf?__blob=publicationFile (Accessed on 11th November 2016).

  144. 144.

    European Union [32].

  145. 145.

    European Commission [33].

  146. 146.

    European Union External Action Service [34]. Regulation (EC) No 1638/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24th of October 2006 laying down general provisions establishing a European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument.

  147. 147.

    European Union [35].

  148. 148.

    European Union Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo—EULEX [44].

  149. 149.

    Police Assistance Mission of the European Commission to Albania—PAMECA IV [82].

  150. 150.

    European Union Border Assistance Mission to Moldova and Ukraine—EUBAM [36].

  151. 151.

    BOMCA—Border Management Programme in Central Asia [9].

  152. 152.

    European Union Police Mission in Afghanistan—EUPOL [37].

  153. 153.

    European Union Monitoring Mission in Georgia—EUMM-Georgia [38].

  154. 154.

    European Union Police Mission in the Palestinian Territories—EUPOL COPPS [36].

  155. 155.

    Spiegel-Online [90].

  156. 156.

    Herdegen et al. [63, pp. 49–84].

  157. 157.

    Chandler [24].

  158. 158.

    Flynn [57].

  159. 159.

    The Guardian [100].

  160. 160.

    European Parliament [39].

  161. 161.

    European Union [40]. Council Regulation (EC) No 2666/2000 of 5th December 2000 on aid to Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1628/96 and amending Regulations (EEC) No 2906/89 and No 1360/90 and of Decisions 97/256/ EC and 1999/311/ EC (see amending acts).

  162. 162.

    European Commission [33].

  163. 163.

    European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) [45].

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Wagner, J. (2021). Transnational Threats. In: Border Management in Transformation. Advanced Sciences and Technologies for Security Applications. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-62728-7_3

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