Abstract
‘Peace ecology’ is a scientific approach that aims to build bridges between peace research and environmental studies. In 2000, Paul J. Crutzen introduced the Anthropocene as a new epoch of Earth’s history. Geologists still need to identify evidence in the sediments, e.g. from nuclear explosions and the testing of nuclear and hydrogen weapons in the atmosphere, that such a transition has actually occurred. Direct human interventions into the Earth System through the accumulation of greenhouse gases and carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere have caused multiple societal impacts, resulting in rapid increases in production, consumption, urbanisation, pollution, migration, crises and conflicts. Peace ecology in the Anthropocene era of Earth and human history can be conceptualised on the basis of five conceptual pillars: peace, security, equity, sustainability and gender. This chapter develops ‘peace ecology’ in the context of the Anthropocene in ten sections. After a detailed conceptual introduction (2.1), the second Sect. (2.2) discusses five alternative starting points of the Anthropocene: the Agricultural or the Industrial Revolutions, the Columbian Exchange, the Nuclear era and the ‘Great Acceleration’, while the third Sect. (2.3) offers a conceptual mapping of the Anthropocene and the fourth Sect. (2.4) interprets the Anthropocene as a turning point, context and challenge for science and politics. For the new context of the Anthropocene Sect. 2.5 offers a rethinking of peace and the evolution of peace research since the end of World War I, World War II and the Cold War in selected countries and the development of three international peace research organisations: IPRA, PSS(I) and ISA-PEACE. A reconceptualisation of peace in the Post-Cold War Era (1990–2020) and in the Anthropocene is also taking place. Section 5.6 reviews the evolution and rethinking of several ecology concepts (human, political, social) and (political) geo-ecological approaches during the Anthropocene. Section 2.7 reviews several bridge-building initiatives between peace research and ecology that were previously developed by scholars (e.g. Kenneth and Elise Boulding, Arthur H. Westing et al.) and were suggested during the conceptual debate on environmental and ecological security and in the empirical case studies by Günter Bächler (Switzerland) and Thomas Homer Dixon (Canada) on environmental degradation, scarcity and stress as causes and on conflictive outcomes. Since the end of the Cold War, from a policy perspective, debates have evolved on environmental peacemaking and post-conflict peacebuilding and on climate change, security and conflict linkages. While older bridge-building efforts stemming from peace research have addressed issues related to violence, more recent discourses emerging from environment and sustainability studies have addressed issues of sustainability transition and their impact on sustainable peace (Peck 1998) initiatives in the Anthropocene Sect. 2.7. Section 2.8 focuses on the suggested peace ecology approach and research programme as a holistic, enlightening and critical scientific project for the Anthropocene. For this it is necessary to overcome the fragmentation of scientific and political knowledge to incorporate holistic perspectives and transformative approaches that facilitate the move from knowledge to action. In Sect. 2.9 the author addresses the need to develop an ecological peace policy for the second phase of the Anthropocene (2020–2100) by developing strategies and policies to surmount the challenges in the Anthropocene. In Sect. 2.10 the author concludes by proposing a peace ecology research programme and an ecological peace policy in the Anthropocene (2.10).
PD Dr. Hans Günter Brauch, chairman of AFES-PRESS, chairman of the board of the Hans Günter Brauch Foundation on Peace and Ecology in the Anthropocene (HGBS), and editor of this Anthropocene (APESS) book series; Email: brauch@onlinehome.de.
This text addresses two themes the author has been working on for some time and thus builds on several previous texts that were authored and co-authored on ‘peace ecology’ and the ‘Anthropocene’ (Brauch 2012, 2014, 2016, 2016a, 2017); Brauch et al. (2011, 2015); Brauch et al. (2016); Brauch et al. (2017); Crutzen/Brauch (2016); Oswald Spring et al. (2009); Oswald Spring et al. (2014; 2014a). Additional new texts by this author are in preparation and will be published in the years to come.
The author appreciates the critical and very constructive comments he received on a first rough draft of 31 January 2020 from Prof Dr. Holsti, Vancouver (Canada); Prof Dr. Simon Dalby, Waterloo, Canada; Prof Dr. Úrsula Oswald Spring, CRIM, UNAM, Cuernavaca (Mexico); Ambassador Dr. Luis Alberto Padilla Menendez, Guatemala City (Guatemala); and Prof Dr. Czeslaw Mesjasz, Cracow (Poland). Brief comments were received from Prof Dr. Geoff Harris, Durban (South Africa) and Prof Dr. Janos Bogardi, the former Vice Rector of UNU and founding director of UNU-EHS in Bonn (Germany). For information on ongoing work by peace researchers on environment issues the author is grateful to Prof Dr. Peter Wallensteen (Sweden), Prof Nils-Petter Gleditsch (Norway) and Mr Unto Vesa (Finland).
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Notes
- 1.
On the Greek origins and meanings of the term Anthropos, access: Frederik Arends’ (1943–2020) oral contribution on “Conceptual Origins: ‘Anthropos’ and ‘Politik’ as seen by the Greeks”; at: http://www.afes-press-books.de/html/events.htm [use the password: ‘anthropocene 2017’ to listen]. An obituary of Dr. Jacob Frederik Martinus Arends, who passed away on 3 June 2020, is at: http://www.afes-press-books.de/html/PDFs/2020/Obituary_Jacob_Frederik_Martinus_Arends.pdf. See also: https://www.afes-press-books.de/html/PDFs/2020/Brauch_Personal_Memories_on_Frederik_Arends.pdf
- 2.
“Anthropocene”, in: Wikipedia; at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropocene (31 May 2020).
- 3.
“The Anthropocene”, in: Wikipedia; at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropocene (31 May 2020).
- 4.
“The Einstein-Szilard Letter – 1939”, in: “Atomic Heritage Foundation” website; at: https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/einstein-szilard-letter-1939.
- 5.
“Manhattan District History Project: Y The Los Alamos Project, Vol. I: Inception until August 1945”; at: https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc841449/; “Manhattan Project”; at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Project.
- 6.
Zalasiewicz et. al. (2015); Waters et al. (2018): 379–429.
- 7.
See at: http://www.igbp.net/ (1 December 2019).
- 8.
See the figures on the twenty-four IGBP categories of the ‘Great Acceleration’ on the website of Future Earth; at: https://futureearth.org/2015/01/16/the-great-acceleration/ (1 December 2019); Steffen et al. (2004, 2015).
- 9.
“The Anthropocene”, in: Wikipedia; at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropocene (31 May 2020).
- 10.
See the statement of the AWG at: http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/working-groups/anthropocene/ (1 December 2019).
- 11.
Wikipedia “Concept Map”; at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_map. Wikipedia distinguished between ‘topic maps’ (developed by Joseph Novak and Alberto J. Cañas, 2008: “The Theory Underlying Concept Maps and How to Construct and Use Them”, Technical Report IHMC CmapTools 2006–01, Rev 01–2008, Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition; at: https://cmap.ihmc.us/docs/pdf/TheoryUnderlyingConceptMaps.pdf [29 July 2020]), which “make concepts, and propositions composed of concepts, the central elements in the structure of knowledge and construction of meaning” and ‘mind maps’, “which typically emerge from a single centre”. Concept mapping was developed by Joseph D. Novak … in the 1970s as a means of representing the emerging science knowledge of students. It has subsequently been used as a tool to increase meaningful learning in the sciences and other subjects as well as to represent the expert knowledge of individuals and teams in education, government and business. Concept maps have their origin in the learning movement called constructivism. In particular, constructivists hold that learners actively construct knowledge.
- 12.
See at the ‘Research Mapping Knowledge Base’: William M.K. Trochim: “Concept Mapping”; at: https:// conjointly.com/kb/concept-mapping/ .
- 13.
For an oral discussion of the anthropos concept in classical Greek, see Frederik Arends (†):“‘Anthropos’ and ‘Politik’ as seen by the Greeks”, in: “AFES-PRESS Brainstorming in Mosbach: ‘Politik’ in and for the Anthropocene: Obstacles, Challenges, Opportunities and Tasks for the Social Sciences in the 21st Century, 31 May 2017”.
- 14.
“Anthropocene “, in: Wikipedia; at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropocene (7 June 2020); Steffen, Grinevald, Crutzen and, McNeill (2011): 842–67; Stoppani (1873).
- 15.
Wikipedia: “Holocene“; at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene (10 June 2020).
- 16.
See the blurb of the book by Holsti (1992).
- 17.
See the philosophical discourses in the nuclear age; see at: blog.nuclearphilosophy.org/ (10 June 2020); Anders (1985 [1956], 2002 [1980], 1981).
- 18.
Raffnsøe (2016) argues that “a critical human turn affecting the human condition is still in the process of arriving in the wake of an initial Copernican Revolution and Kant’s ensuing second Copernican Counter-revolution. Within this landscape, issues concerning the human – its finitude, responsiveness, responsibility, maturity, auto-affection and relationship to itself – appear rephrased and re-accentuated as decisive probing questions.” His book “explores how the change has ramifications for the kinds of knowledge that can be acquired concerning human beings and for the human sciences as a study of human existential beings in the world.”.
- 19.
See the back cover of Polt/Wittrock (2018).
- 20.
This portion of text heavily relies on Oswald, Brauch and Tidball (2014) and on several texts published in Brauch et al. (2008).
- 21.
“Peace Movement”; at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_movement (29 July 2020); “Friedensbewegung”; at: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedensbewegung (29 July 2020) .
- 22.
See Quidde’s brief biography at: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Quidde and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Quidde.
- 23.
See Gumbel (1958) and a brief biography at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Julius_Gumbel.
- 24.
See the brief biography of John W. Burton; at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Burton_(diplomat); Dunn (2004); see the Guide to the Papers of John W. Burton; at: https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-340342029/findingaid#arrangement (6 August 2020).
- 25.
An extensive body of literature exists on the history of peace research institutions and key pioneers of peace research during and after the Cold War. For an overview, see Brauch (1979); Stephenson (2017).
- 26.
- 27.
See at: https://www.peacejusticestudies.org/school-directory/ (29 July 2020).
- 28.
See at: https://www.usip.org/ (29 July 2020); https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Institute_of_Peace (29 July 2020).
- 29.
On the Toda Peace Institute see at: https://toda.org/.
- 30.
- 31.
- 32.
See at: https://www.canberra.edu.au/coursesandunits/unit?unit_cd=8167 (30 July 2020).
- 33.
- 34.
See at: https://www.economicsandpeace.org (30 July 2020).
- 35.
See at: https://www.otago.ac.nz/ncpacs/about/ (30 July 2020).
- 36.
- 37.
For a survey and proposal for “Strengthening Peace Research and Peace Education in African Universities” see: Omeje (2015). For a survey of institutions in the Global North working on peace and development academic programmes with a focus on Africa, see McCandless et al. (2007); at: https://maryking.info/wp-content/PeaceResearchforAfrica.pdf 9 August 2020): 233–249.
- 38.
See at: https://www.accord.org.za/news/accord-presents-at-afprea-2019-regional-conference-in-cape-town/ (9 August 2020).
- 39.
See at: https://www.accord.org.za/about/.
- 40.
See PRIO at: https://www.prio.org/Projects/Project/?x=1407. “DIASPEACE was a large EU-funded cooperation project that studied the transnational political activities of Somali, Ethiopian and Eritrean diaspora organizations based in Europe. The project sought to generate policy-relevant, evidence-based knowledge on how diasporas play into the dynamics of conflict and peace in their countries of origin. It ran from March 2008 to February 2011.
- 41.
See SIPRI at: https://www.sipri.org/research/conflict-peace-and-security/africa-security-and-governance-project SIPRI conducted an Africa Security and Governance Project (2009–2012) supported by the Open Society Institute (www.soros.org). SIPRI’s recent work on Africa spans several regions and cross-cutting themes, including peacekeeping, peacebuilding and military expenditure; at: https://www.sipri.org/research/conflict-peace-and-security/africa (9 August 2020).
- 42.
See at: https://www.berghof-foundation.org/en/programmes/africa/ (9 August 2020). The Berghof Foundation’s “sub-Saharan Africa Unit supports various types of dialogue spanning high-level political dialogue, civil-society forums, and grass-roots dialogue initiatives. The Unit … supports the establishment and strengthening of infrastructures for peace in the East Africa region.”.
- 43.
See at: https://www.upeace.org/.
- 44.
- 45.
On ‘depleted uranium’ see UNEP’s website; at: https://www.unenvironment.org/explore-topics/disasters-conflicts/what-we-do/preparedness-and-response/post-crisis-environmental-0 (29 July 2020).
- 46.
See ‘ecocide law’; at: https://ecocidelaw.com/the-law/what-is-ecocide/ (14 June 2020).
- 47.
Anthropocene Working Group (AWG 2019).
- 48.
See: African Peace Researchand EducationAssociation (APREA); at: https://uia.org/s/or/en/1100011209 (31 July 2020).
- 49.
See: Asia-Pacific Peace Research Association (APPRA); at: https://appra.net/ and https://appra.net/appra-conference-2019/ (31 July 2020).
- 50.
See: European Peace Research Association (EUPRA); at: https://www.euprapeace.org/ (31 July 2020).
- 51.
See: North American Peace and Justice Studies Organisation (PJSO); at: https://www.peacejusticestudies.org/ (31 July 2020).
- 52.
See: Latin American Peace Research Association (CLAIP); at: https://uia.org/s/or/en/1100057573 (31 July 2020); Oswald Spring and Serrano Oswald (2018).
- 53.
See: the International Council of Science (ICS); at: https://council.science/members/online-directory/ (31 July 2020).
- 54.
See at: https://peacescience.unt.edu/ (13 June 2020).
- 55.
See at: https://www.isanet.org/ISA/About-ISA (13 June 2020).
- 56.
See at: https://www.isanet.org/ISA/Sections/PEACE/News (13 June 2020).
- 57.
- 58.
For a summary by Tanya Glaser, see: https://www.colorado.edu/conflict/peace/example/boul7525.htm .
- 59.
This section is based on several previous texts by the author that have been updated in order to take most recent publications into account: Brauch et al. (2014a: 6–14).
- 60.
The concept of ‘biocoenosis’, coined by Karl Möbius in 1877, describes the interacting organisms living together in a habitat (biotope); see at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocoenosis (31 July 2020).
- 61.
See ‘ecology’; at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology (14 June 2020).
- 62.
See the websites of the journal Human Ecology at: http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/humaneco/ and https://www.springer.com/journal/10745; for a recent selection of texts on human ecology see: “Science Direct”, at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/human-ecology, and for a review of the history of the concept see at: https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/human-ecology (17 June 2020);
- 63.
See ISEE’s mission on its website at: http://www.isecoeco.org/.
- 64.
Young (1974); Douglas (2002); see at: https://www.springer.com/journal/10745.
- 65.
See Lund University, Department of Human Geography, at: https://www.keg.lu.se/en/education/academics/üsubjects/human-ecology (16 June 2020).
- 66.
See Vienna University, Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, at: https://www.anthropology.at/research/human-ecology/(16 June 2020).
- 67.
See the website of the journal Human Ecology Review, at: https://www.humanecologyreview.org/.
- 68.
See ‘political ecology’, at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_ecology; on ‘Political Ecology’, see Minch (2011); and see the Journal of Political Ecology at: https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/JPE; for recent critical assessments, see Bridge et al. (2015): 117–126.
- 69.
For a survey of recent texts on “Political Ecology”, see at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/political-ecology (16 June 2020).
- 70.
See “Social ecology (academic field)”, in: Wikipedia; at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_ecology_ (academic_field) (16 June 2020);
- 71.
See at: http://social-ecology.org/wp/ (16 June 2020).
- 72.
For a discussion of his work see: https://www.socialworkdegreeguide.com/faq/what-is-social-ecology/ (16 June 2020).
- 73.
See: ISE, Prescott College, NY, USA https://www.social-ecology.org/about/about-the-ise/, which offers an extensive bibliography of Bookchin: http://www.social-ecology.org/learn/published-books/.
- 74.
See at: http://socialecologylondon.wordpress.com/ and a bibliography at: http://socialecologylondon.wordpress.com/articles-and-reviews/.
- 75.
For details see: https://socialecology.uci.edu/pages/about-school (16 June 2020).
- 76.
For details see: https://socialecology.uci.edu/pages/conceptual-social-ecology (16 June 2020).
- 77.
For information about ISOE, Frankfurt, see: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_f%C3%BCr_sozial-%C3%B6kologische_Forschung and: http://www.isoe.de/en/isoe/; for its publications, especially: Becker, Jahn (2006), see at: http://www.isoe.de/en/publications/.
- 78.
For details see: https://www.isoe.org/institut/profil/ (16 June 2020).
- 79.
For details see: http://www.sozial-oekologische-forschung.org/ and for a select bibliography of the sponsored research, see: http://www.sozial-oekologische-forschung.org/de/494.php. BMBF (2015).
- 80.
See “Ecofeminism”, in: Wikipedia; at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecofeminism (16 June 2020); Miles, Kathryn: “Ecofeminism”, in: Encylopaedia Britannica; at: https://www.britannica.com/topic/ecofeminism (16 June 2020).
- 81.
Alicia Irene Bugallo Finnemann is an environmental philosopher and an anthropologist who specialises in ecological philosophy and environmental ethics in the Department of Practical Philosophy at the University of Business and Social Affairs (Universidad de Ciencias Empresariales y Sociales [UCES]), Buenos Aires; at: http://www.aliciabugallo.com/.
- 82.
See “Landscape ecology”, in: Wikipedia; at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_ecology (16 June 2020); and the journal “Landscape Ecology”, at: https://www.springer.com/journal/10980 (16 June 2020).
- 83.
See definition of ‘geoecology’ at: http://www.answers.com/topic/geoecology, based on: Oxford Dictionary of Geography (1992, 1997, 2004).
- 84.
See “Geoökologie “, in: Wikipedia; at: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geo%C3%B6kologie (16 June 2020). Six German universities in Bayreuth (since 1978), Braunschweig, Potsdam, Tübingen, Freiberg und Karlsruhe offer Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees in geoecology.
- 85.
Latin American Centre of Social Ecology (Centro Latino Americano de Ecología Social [CLAES], Gudynas 1999.
- 86.
Centre for Development, Economy, Ecologyand Equity (D3E).
- 87.
This section is based on Brauch et al. (2011).
- 88.
- 89.
- 90.
- 91.
See Haavisto (2003); see UNEP’s Disasters and Conflicts Programme.
- 92.
See more on UNEP’s PCDMB at: https://postconflict.unep.ch/about.php (17 June 2020).
- 93.
UNEP’s PCDMB documents are at: https://www.preventionweb.net/organizations/3668 (17 June 2020).
- 94.
- 95.
See the website of NATO’s Science Division, at: https://www.nato.int/science/.
- 96.
- 97.
- 98.
- 99.
Bächler (1998, 1999); Dalby (2002: 97).
- 100.
The results of the ENCOP project were published in three volumes, the first of which (Bächler et al. 1996) examined the environment as a topic of conflict research, environmental degradation through over-development (wealth-driven) and underdevelopment (poverty-driven), focusing on actors and the key environmental factors of soil, rivers, and mining. It offered a synthesis of environmental degradation as a cause of war and how environmental conflicts can be solved peacefully. The second volume contains case studies focusing on Bangladesh, Sudan and Darfur, Nigeria, Central Asia, the Jordan Basin, Rwanda and mining in the South Pacific (Bächler/Spillmann 1996a). The third volume includes thirteen country studies by external experts (Bächler/Spillmann 1996b).
- 101.
- 102.
See at: https://environmentalpeacebuilding.org/about/ (19 June 2020).
- 103.
See press release at: https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/press-release/new-study-good-governance-natural-resources-essential-post-conflict (17 June 2020). Six volumes were published: Lujala/Rustad (2011); Jensen/Lonergan (2012); Unruh/Williams (2013); Weinthal et al. (2014); Young/Goldman (2015); Bruch et al. (2016). This six-volume set is available at: https://www.routledge.com/search?kw=Post-Conflict+Peace-building+and+Natural+2499+Resource+Management (17 June 2020).
- 104.
See at: https://environmentalpeacebuilding.org/education/mooc/ and https://www.epmooc.org/ (19 June 2020).
- 105.
See at: https://environmentalpeacebuilding.org/about/ (19 June 2020).
- 106.
See at: https://environmentalpeacebuilding.org/education/academy/ (19 June 2020).
- 107.
See at: https://www.researchgate.net/project/Environmental-Peacemaking-and-Peacebuilding-Working-group (19 June 2020).
- 108.
The theory of securitisation has been developed by Ole Wæver (1995, 2008, 2008a) and the Copenhagen school: Buzan et al. (1998).
- 109.
“Climate change recognized as ‘threat multiplier’: UN Security Council debates its impact on peace”, in: UN News, 25 January 2019; at: https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/01/1031322 (18 June 2020).
- 110.
Federal Foreign Office, 2019: “Germany is putting the impact of climate change on the agenda of the UN Security Council” (22 January), at: https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/en/aussenpolitik/internationale-organisationen/vereintenationen/climate-change-security-council/2179806 (18 June 2020).
- 111.
See for documentation at: https://berlin-climate-security-conference.de/watch-bcsc-2020 (5 July 2020).
- 112.
Federal Foreign Office, 2020; at: https://berlin-climate-security-conference.de/ (19 June 2020).
- 113.
Federal Foreign Office, 2020; at: https://berlin-climate-security-conference.de/co-organisers (19 June 2020).
- 114.
See at: https://berlin-climate-security-conference.de/high-level-statements (5 July 2020).
- 115.
In the US, on 25 September 2009, the Central Intelligence Agency opened a Center on Climate Change and National Security (see: https://www.cia.gov/news-information/press-releases-statements/center-on-climate-change-and-national-security.html), but in 2015 the Republicans requested severe funding cuts on climate change both for the CIA and the US Department of Defense; see: Foran, Clare, 2015: “Republicans Push Climate Change Cuts at CIA, Defense Department”, in: Atlantic (17 March).
- 116.
UNEP: “Climate change and security risks”; at: https://www.unenvironment.org/explore-topics/disasters-conflicts/what-we-do/risk-reduction/climate-change-and-security-risks; Guidance Note and Tools to Address Climate-Fragility Risks (UNEP, EU, Adelphi); Livelihood Security: Climate Change, Migration and Conflict in the Sahel (UNEP, IOM, OCHA, UNU, CILSS, 2011); UN-EU Guidance Note: Managing and Preventing Conflicts over Renewable Resources (UNEP with EU-UN Partnership on Land, Natural Resources and Conflict, 2012); DFID (2014): Topic Guide: Conflict, Climate and Environment; “Security Council, in Statement, Says ‘Contextual Information’ on Possible Security Implications of Climate Change Important When Climate Impacts Drive Conflict”, 20 July 2011.
- 117.
See Achim Steiner (2009): https://www.nato.int/strategic-concept/pdf/UNEP.pdf (18 June 2020).
- 118.
See: “Climate Security”, at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_security (2 August 2020); Adger et al. (2014): 755–791; Detraz/Betsill (2009); Brauch (2002, 2006); Brauch/Scheffran (2010); McDonald (2013); Taylor (2013); Brauch (2014): Boas/Rothe (2016); Selby (2014); Trombetta (2014); Baldwin et al. (2014); Floyd (2008); Brzoska (2016); von Lucke (2014); Warner, Boas (2017); Risbey (2008).
- 119.
See: EU position paper of March 2008; at: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/30862/en_clim_change_low.pdf (2 August 2020); Ministry of Defence (2010a); US Department of Defense (2015); UN Security Council (2007); Kurtz (2012).
- 120.
- 121.
Buhaug (2015); Buhaug et al. (2014); Buhaug/Rudolfsen (2015); Burke et al. (2015); Gleditsch (2012); Hsiang et al. (2013); Ide/Scheffran (2014); Detges (2014, 2016, 2017, 2018).
- 122.
See for more details and publications by the CLISEC team at: https://www.clisec.uni-hamburg.de/staff/current-members-of-clisec/scheffran.html and https://www.clisec.uni-hamburg.de/publications.html (5 September 2020).
- 123.
For details of KSI see: http://www.ksinetwork.nl/home; on its participants see: http://www.ksinetwork.nl/what-is-ksi/participants and for its publications see: https://www.ksinetwork.nl/output/publications. See also Routledge Studies in Sustainability Transition: http://www.routledge.com/books/series/RSST/
- 124.
For STRN, see: http://www.transitionsnetwork.org/; and for a reference list of ST literature see: http://www.transitions-network.org/files/Reference%20list%20to%20transition%20publications.pdf. STRN has held conferences in Amsterdam (2009), Lund (2011), Copenhagen (2012) and Zürich (2013); selected results are published in: Journal on Environmental Innovation and Sustainability Transition; at: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/environmental-innovation-and-societal-transitions/.
- 125.
For Tellus, see at: http://www.tellus.org/about/ (11 February 2015).
- 126.
See at: http://www.transitionsnetwork.org/ (22 January 2015).
- 127.
See the opening page of the STRN, at: http://www.transitionsnetwork.org/ (22 January 2015).
- 128.
The Environmental Innovation and Sustainability Transitions (EIST) Journal “offers a platform for reporting studies of innovations and socio-economic transitions to enhance an environmentally sustainable economy and thus solve structural resource scarcity and environmental problems, notably related to fossil energy use and climate change.” See the Environmental Innovation and Sustainability Transitions (EIST) Journal at: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/environmental-innovation-and-societal-transitions/.
- 129.
See publications on: “Green growth and sustainable development”.
- 130.
See “White paper 2011: Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area: Towards a Competitive and Resource Efficient Transport System”, at: http://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/strategies/2011_white_paper_en.htm.
- 131.
European Commission, Climate Action, “Roadmap for moving to a Low-Carbon Economy in 2050”; This report is not online any more but instead is accessible in 2020: “2050 long-term strategy”; at: http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/roadmap/index_en.htm.
- 132.
See: “The Energy Transition in Europe: Initial Lessons from Germany, the UK and France” see also the “Berlin Energy Transition Dialogue” https://www.dena.de/veranstaltungen/berlin-energy-transition-dialogue-2016.html (24 February 2016).
- 133.
European Commission, 19 December 2019; at: https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/e%20n/ip_19_6691.
- 134.
Europena Green Deal; at: https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal_en and https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/green-deal/ (12 December 2020).
- 135.
European Council, “Long-term EU budget 2021–2027”; at: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/the-eu-budget/long-term-eu-budget-2021-2027/ (12 December 2020).
- 136.
EUCO 10/20 EN, European Council, Brussels, 21 July 2020 (OR. en), EUCO 10/20CO EUR 8 CONCL 4; see “2020 climate & energy package”; at: https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/strategies/2020_en; see: “2030 climate & energy framework”; at: https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/strategies/2030_en (12 December 2020).
- 137.
See at: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/45109/210720-euco-final-conclusions-en.pdf (1 August 2020); see: “European Council conclusions, 10-11 December 2020. On 10 and 11 December 2020, the European Council adopted conclusions on the MFF and Next Generation EU, COVID-19, climate change, security and external relations”, at: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2020/12/11/european-council-conclusions-10-11-december-2020/; see the text; at: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/47296/1011-12-20-euco-conclusions-en.pdf (12 December 2020).
- 138.
See for details on the final version of the “Long-term EU budget 2021–2027: A budget powering the recovery from COVID-19”; at: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/the-eu-budget/long-term-eu-budget-2021-2027/ (9 December 2020)
- 139.
- 140.
This section partly relies on a previous co-authored chapter (Oswald Spring, Brauch et al. 2014), with the permission of the co-authors.
- 141.
See “EcoPeace Middle East”; at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EcoPeace_Middle_East (6 August 2020); see direct link, at; https://ecopeaceme.org/.
- 142.
This section relies on Oswald Spring et al. (2016: 43).
- 143.
Piaget/Inhelder (1969) argued that meta-thinking and behaviour are not simply acquired from the outer world but emerge from within, in relation to the outside. Piaget’s constructivism is embedded in social, economic, environmental, political, gender and cultural structures. According to Piaget’s epistemology, the development of a child’s knowledge comes about through understanding the chronological sequences and structural interrelations between each of these processes, their advances and sometimes also their regressions. He used empirical data to show how a simple structure becomes more complex, then global, and how this generalisable structure may facilitate a sustainable transition process. From this epistemology comes the idea of complex structures, processes, and social interactions in which a sustainable-engendered peace may help overcome greed, social differentiation, discrimination, and violence.
- 144.
Choi/Pak 2006: “Multidisciplinarity, Interdisciplinarity and Transdisciplinarity in Health Research, Services, Education and Policy: 1: Definitions, Objectives, and Evidence of Effectiveness”, in: Clinical and Investigative Medicine, 29,6 (December): 351–364.
- 145.
“Definitions”; at: https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/trec/about-us/definitions/ (4 February 2016).
- 146.
“Nuclear Testing 1945 – today”; at: https://www.ctbto.org/nuclear-testing/history-of-nuclear-testing/nuclear-testing-1945-today/ (12 December 2012).
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Brauch, H.G. (2021). Peace Ecology in the Anthropocene. In: Oswald Spring, Ú., Brauch, H.G. (eds) Decolonising Conflicts, Security, Peace, Gender, Environment and Development in the Anthropocene . The Anthropocene: Politik—Economics—Society—Science, vol 30. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-62316-6_2
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