Abstract
The ongoing conflict in Syria has disastrously impacted the environment and public health. Fighting has destroyed cities with widespread damage to industrial sites and critical infrastructure. Analysis of the fighting, which is based on satellite imagery, social media monitoring, and the reports of International agencies, has identified that the cement industry has sustained severe damage; has been critical in the production of military works by all combatants, and will be critical in reconstruction. Quarries and cement factories have been seized by armed groups and fought over reducing or stopping production. In 2016, Turkey began closing the border with Syria completing 828 km of concrete wall by 2018. In the Afrin region, Kurdsh malitia built extensive networks of trenches, cut and cover hardened tunnels (CCHTs) and underground facilities (UGFs) using reinforced concrete to improve survivability. Airstrikes and artillery bombardment of urban areas throughout Syria have caused the destruction of a major part its housing stock. Millions of tonnes of conflict debris, some of which contains hazardous materials such as asbestos, heavy metals, and the toxic residues from weapons have been created. Cities will need to be reconstructed and to rebuild Aleppo city alone will require ca. 7.5 times the pre-war annual output of all the quarries in Syria. This will place an unprecedented demand on the quarrying and cement industry for concrete. The shortfall will require recycling and repurposing of conflict debris.
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Notes
- 1.
Also known as Rojava.
- 2.
Ayn Al-Arab is another name for Kabane or Kobane.
- 3.
- 4.
MAS Economic Group through its subsidiaries distributes agricultural products, manufactures metal cans, canning and preserving fruits and vegetables, and real estate development services. The company was founded in 1980 and is based in Damascus, Syria.
- 5.
PM10 tends to settle out within the quarry areas but PM2.5 travels into the surrounding areas.
- 6.
Repeated inhalation of respirable crystalline silica (quartz) may cause silicosis, a fibrosis (scarring) of the lungs. Silicosis is irreversible and may be fatal. Silicosis increases the risk of contracting pulmonary tuberculosis. Some studies suggest that repeated inhalation of respirable crystalline silica may cause other adverse health effects including lung and kidney cancer.
- 7.
Extraction, loading and unloading, conveying, crushing, screening, loadout, and storage. Typical equipment used at a quarry includes: excavator and hammer, dump trucks, drill machine, compressors, dozers, wheel loaders, fuel tank trucks, and water trucks.
- 8.
Rock quarrying operations involve extraction of rock through overburden removal, drilling and blasting; and loading and unloading.
- 9.
In May 2105 IS seized the Khunayfis phosphate mine as well as the one at Al-Sharqiyah in Homs Province. At least six Belaz haul trucks were captured. They captured more of these when they seized the Badush cement plant 20 km NW of West Mosul. IS also controlled production facilities at sulphur extraction plants run by the Mishraq Sulphur State Company 25 km south of Mosul and Syria’s main salt mine in Deir Ez-Zor Province.
- 10.
Recycling post-industrial material helps to limit CO2 emissions.
- 11.
Syrian Environmental Law No. 50 dated 2002.
- 12.
An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is a filtration device that removes fine particles, like dust and smoke, from a flowing gas using the force of an induced electrostatic charge minimally impeding the flow of gases through the unit.
- 13.
This meant they often carried large amounts of cash that was later to become a reason for armed groups to stop vehicles to rob them.
- 14.
A large truck with a long trailer attached to the back of it.
- 15.
OLI measures in the visible, near-infrared, and short wave infrared portions of the spectrum.
- 16.
Sentinel 2-A has a longer repeat period than Landsat8 and uses 13 spectral bands, from the visible and near-infrared to shortwave infrared at resolutions from 10 to 60 m on the ground.
- 17.
DigitalGlobe’s WorldView-2 satellite provides 0.46 m panchromatic (B&W) mono and stereo satellite image data. WorldView-3 satellite provides 31 cm panchromatic resolution, 1.24 m multispectral resolution, 3.7 m short wave infrared resolution (SWIR), and 30 m CAVIS resolution.
- 18.
Owned and operated by Al Badia Cement J.S.C.
- 19.
Also known at Rojava.
- 20.
Also known as pozzolana. An order for 650,000 tons of volcanic ash worth 216.5 million Syrian pounds (roughly $3 m at the time) is listed from the al-Manakher quarry east of Raqqa in the 2012 annual report. www.geology-sy.org.
- 21.
Firas Tlass. See Lund 2018 for details.
- 22.
This in no small part was due to IS releasing video of beheading Syrian soldiers captured in Raqqa when they defeated Syrian government forces before advancing on the LCSF.
- 23.
While this was happening in Syria, Lafarge merged with Swiss company Holcim in 2015 to become LafargeHolcim.
- 24.
The SDF was founded in October 2015 and is composed primarily of Kurdish, Arab, and Assyrian/Syriac militias, as well as some smaller Armenian, Turkmen, and Chechen forces led by the YPG. The updated December 2016 constitution of the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (NES) named the SDF as the official defence force.
- 25.
The formation of the National Army was officially announced on 30 December 2017 in Azaz. The official aims of the group are to assist the Republic of Turkey in creating a “safe zone” in Syria.
- 26.
Small concrete fort.
- 27.
When power hoisting equipment is not available, bundles of reinforcing bars may be skidded from the truck over timbers or rails extending from the truck bed to the ground. Timbers (dunnage) are normally located on the ground to support and elevate the bundles, and keep them free from mud on the jobsite.
- 28.
Steel Billets is the second stage product produced in the process of making steel bars. The raw steel cannot be used in its pure form and has to be cast into a shape before being used. The freshly made steel, which is still in the form of a metal bar or rectangle, is called steel billet.
- 29.
A large number of new piles appear in the western quarry in an EO WorldView image acquired 28 January, 2018.
- 30.
In comparison, in Homs, 5.3 M Mt. have accumulated up to 2017. It would take about 2.5 years and 2.3 M truck-kilometers to clear.
- 31.
Disaster Waste Recovery is a UK-based not-for-profit organisation responding to global crises, providing vital debris recovery and waste management support to strengthen disaster-affected communities through to rebuilding their livelihoods. https://www.disasterwaste.org/.
- 32.
Urban Resilience Platform is a not-for-profit organisation preparing for large-scale debris and waste management works with expertise in post-disaster waste, tunnel spoil management, and offshore decommissioning. https://www.urplatform.eu.
- 33.
Work weeks are 7 days long and working days are 10 h each.
- 34.
Two hundred trucks, each with a capacity of 16 metric tonnes, are used throughout the debris processing program from day 1 until the end day. This assumption does not therefore allow for the reality of fluctuating access to resources by the debris program nor access into some of the smaller roads and streets. Indeed the competition with other sectors in terms of access to transportation resources is not taken into account.
- 35.
The emissions have been calculated for truck movements within the scenarios, where both trucks carrying debris and empty trucks are included. The algorithm relies on distance travelled by the trucks (kilometres) multiplied by typical construction truck CO2 emissions as provided by the UK Government GHG Conversion Factors for Company Reporting.
- 36.
The debris which is created by the conflict is not 100% recyclable, it will require separation, and a portion of the debris will need to go to disposal in all cases, even after processing at the recycling sites.
- 37.
This number will have increased due to continued fighting in Aleppo over 2017–2019.
- 38.
Landfill gas can be used to generate electricity but leachate has to be pumped out and treated elsewhere.
- 39.
Not chemically reactive.
- 40.
Covering loads, speed limits, and prohibit activities during high wind.
- 41.
Paved roads, purchase PM10 efficient sweeper, chemical dust suppressant, apply water, air quality monitoring, limit speeds.
- 42.
Examples include Brownstone Park, Connecticut; Quarry Falls, San Diego; Bellwood Quarry, Atlanta; Butchart Gardens, Victoria Canada; Groundscraper Hotel, Shanghai, China.
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Acknowledgements
The author thanks the reviewers for their comments. I would like to thank Martin Bjerregaard of Disaster Waste Recovery (DWR), and Aiden Short of Urban Resilience Platform (URP), for their discussions regarding cement production, quarrying and debris management.
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Bulmer, M.H. (2021). Using EO to Understand the Significance of Cement Production Infrastructure in the Syrian Conflict. In: Singhroy, V. (eds) Advances in Remote Sensing for Infrastructure Monitoring. Springer Remote Sensing/Photogrammetry. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59109-0_14
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