Concluding Remarks

Abstract

Our literature survey reveals that majority of the health benefitting taxa of macrofungi chiefly belong to Agaricomycotina followed by Pezizomycotina with dominancy of species in Agaricomycetes. In the present work, we made an effort to shed light on the health-promoting efficacies of the edible and medicinal macrofungi and discussed these species following the classification of Kirk et al. (2008) current names of macrofungi as per Mycobank database (www.mycobank.org). Macrofungi are represented by 1,250,000 specimens across the globe (Thiers and Halling 2018). This data keeps on changing with the underexplored and unexplored ecogeographic zones. Macromycetes exhibit variations in structure and reproduction, ecology, and edibility. These species are capable of growing on a broad spectrum of substrates such as various types of soil rich in moisture and humus, litter, animal dung, dead decaying wood and organic matter, termite mounds, live trees, and a few even on plastic debris (Brunner et al. 2018; Karun et al. 2018). These species play several pivotal functions in the forest ecosystems such as in cycling of nutrients, as ecosystem scavengers, as pathogens, and as symbionts (Bajpai et al. 2019; Copoț and Tănase 2019). Macrofungi have wide distribution range occurring in various tropical, subtropical, temperate, and alpine forests and even in deserts of different countries across Europe, Africa, America, Asia, and Australia (Tripathi et al. 2017). Macromycetes (edible/medicinal) have marked significance as human health-promising agents. Edible species in the genera Agaricus, Auricularia, Betula, Cordyceps, Morchella, Pleurotus, Russula, Terfezia, etc. are eaten as food, while medicinal species placed in the genera Fomes, Ganoderma, Inonotus, Phellinus, Trametes, etc. are utilized to treat different kinds of diseases in different parts of the world as is evidenced by ethnomycology. The sporocarps of wild edible species of macrofungi are eaten after cooking following different recipes across the world. For medicinal use, the sporocarps of medicinal species are used as whole, in the form of powder or paste. Additionally, some species are toxigenic and accidental consumption of such species cause several precarious health effects such as vomiting, nausea, stomachache, gastroenteritis, diarrhea, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, neurotoxicity, etc. and in certain cases may prove fatal (Erguven et al. 2007; Vişneci et al. 2019). Therefore, correct identification is prerequisite for the consumption of these species. However, various toxins obtained from the toxigenic species, e.g. A. xanthodermus, possess medicinal properties (Özaltun and Sevindik 2020). Macrofungi are enriched with diverse kinds of nutrients such as carbohydrates, sugars, proteins, fats, fatty acids, amino acids, minerals, and vitamins responsible for their food value. The medicinal mushrooms possess high as well a low molecular weight bioactive constituents. High molecular weight compounds mainly include polysaccharides (β-glucans) and proteins, whereas low molecular weight compounds are secondary metabolites, e.g., terpenoids, phenols, tannins, flavonoids, steroids, alkaloids, etc. All these mycochemicals contribute towards pharmacological activities of mushrooms such as antioxidant, antitumor, antidiabetic, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antimalarial, antiviral, and neurodegenerative. Evolution of modern-day techniques such as electron microscopy, WDXRF, GC-MS, LC-MS, etc. revolutionizes the identification, analysis of mycochemical composition, and evaluation of pharmacological potential of macrofungi. The mycelial biomass or extracts of health-promoting edible/medicinal macrofungi are being developed as DSs/functional foods or prebiotics. Several medicinal macrofungal products are available in the market as health supplements in the form of tablets, capsules, powder, or extract, as cosmetics (skin, hair products), tea, antifatigue and immunostimulatory agents, etc. There are various regulatory authorities such as WHO, FAO, and FDA to manage the use and ensure the quality of these commercial products. The wild mushrooms grow naturally, and their growth and occurrence in nature is a chance phenomenon. To meet the growing needs of higher fungi as food, in medicine and industry, cultivation is the best option. Several species of macrofungi with use value to man are in cultivation worldwide with China leading in this industry. A. bisporus, C. sinensis, L. edodes, Pleurotus spp., Auricularia spp., and F. velutipes, G. lucidum, and P. cocos represent the commonly cultivated species in the world. In spite of these inestimable benefits of macrofungi, these are often overlooked and often kept out of conservation plans. Natural calamities like forest fire, floods, tornadoes, etc. disturb the structure and function of ecosystem which is a home to diverse forms of life including macrofungi (Salo and Kouki 2018; Ford et al. 2018). Anthropogenic activities such as deforestation, industrialization, and urbanization are responsible for climatic change which in turn bring changes in the diversity and distribution of macrofungi (Lees and Pimm 2015; Wagensommer et al. 2018). Because of overexploitation, anthropogenic activities, and climate change, wild macrofungi are facing threat of extinction, and several taxa are red listed by IUCN (http://www.eccf.eu). Therefore, for sustainable use of wild macrofungi and to maintain the genetic stability in culture collections, several in situ and ex situ conservation efforts are made regularly by IUCN and other national and international organizations.