Abstract
The standard of civilization, as it was applied to the Ottoman Empire and, subsequently, to the French Mandates of Lebanon and Syria, produced a set of material and immaterial benchmarks. As such, the populations were required to accede to a set of socio-political norms as well as apply modernization reforms that replicated the institutions and structures of statehood in Europe. However, and as discussed in this chapter, the standard of civilization became intertwined with the interests of European states. Because the civilizing project and modernization reforms, being the products of a standard of civilization, could not be divorced from political and economic interests, the standard that was required of the Ottoman Empire, Lebanon, and Syria continued to shift. The result was the continued subordination of the Ottoman Empire and the Syrian provinces, the continuation of the civilizing project, and—as such—the continued application of imperial interference and intervention. This is evident throughout the Tanzimat period as well as the French Mandate period.
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Notes
- 1.
The Hünkâr İskelesi Agreement (1833) was followed by the Treaty of Munchengraetz on September 18, 1833. The latter was an agreement signed between Russia, Austria, and Prussia to protect the sovereignty of the monarchy should it be threatened. Following the eight-year term of the Hünkâr İskelesi Agreement, a new treaty had been signed in London, The Straits Convention, July 13, 1841, which outlined the legal status of the Straits and significantly reduced Ottoman sovereignty of the waterways (Beydilli 2001, pp. 86–91).
- 2.
FO/78/410, TNA, January 23, 1840, from N.W. Ulerry in Damascus to John Bidwell.
- 3.
FO/78/410, TNA, January 18, 1840, from N.W. Ulerry in Damascus to Lord Palmerston, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs; June 23, 1840 (no. 9), from N.W. Ulerry, Damascus to Lord Palmerston, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs.
- 4.
FO/78/243, TNA, February 7, 1834, from J.W. Farren in Damascus to Lord Palmerston, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs; FO/78/252, TNA, January 13, 1835, no. 14, from D. Sandison in Constantinople to Lord Posonb,.
- 5.
FO/78/243, TNA, February 7, 1834, from J.W. Farren in Damascus to Lord Palmerston, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs.
- 6.
Although Farren admires the logics of the new social order under Egyptian forces, he is aware of its violence and brutality. FO/78/243, TNA, February 7, 1834, from J.W. Farren in Damascus to Lord Palmerston, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs.
- 7.
FO/78/410, TNA, January 18, 1840, from N.W. Ulerry in Damascus to Lord Palmerston, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs; June 23, 1840, no. 9, from N.W. Ulerry in Damascus to Lord Palmerston, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs.
- 8.
Convention of Commerce, Balta Liman, August 16, 1838.
- 9.
The French consul writes that the English are making gains in the city of Aleppo through engaging with the indigenous population in the formation of trade agreements, 166PO/D1/46, CADN, March 12, 1840, no. 37, from Henry Guys in Aleppo to Duc de Dalmatie, President of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
- 10.
FO/78/410, TNA, January 23, 1840, from N.W. Ulerry in Damascus to John Bidwell, Foreign Office.
- 11.
18PO/A/11, CADN, November 5, 1840, ‘Séance Royale, Discours du Roi’.
- 12.
166PO/D20/2, CADN, January 8, 1840, no. 7, from Comte de Ratti-Menton in Damascus to M. de Pontois, French Ambassador in Constantinople.
- 13.
FO/78/410, TNA, January 23, 1840, from N.W. Ulerry in Damascus to John Bidwell, Foreign Office.
- 14.
FO/78/410, TNA, January 23, 1840, from N.W. Ulerry in Damascus to John Bidwell, Foreign Office.
- 15.
166PO/D1/46 January 21, 1840, CADN, no. 43, from Henry Guys, Aleppo to M. de Pontois, Special Envoy to Istanbul; 166PO/D20/2 January 8, 1840, CADN, no. 7, from Comte de Ratti-Menton, Damascus to M. de Pontois, French Ambassador in Constantinople.
- 16.
FO/78/410, TNA, January 23, 1840, from N.W. Ulerry in Damascus to John Bidwell, Foreign Office.
- 17.
FO/78/410, TNA, January 23, 1840, from N.W. Ulerry in Damascus to John Bidwell, Foreign Office.
- 18.
- 19.
The consul wrote back to England describing his interactions with the rebellious populations. He asked ‘them to yield obedience to their legitimate rulers, and to submit peaceably and quietly to the imperial ordinances in order to avoid the total ruin of their homes and country’. The consul further writes that opposition to Turkish Authority is also strong with the Sunnis (Mahometans), Shiites (Mutuwalies), and general population (Rayah), who wish for the British authority in Syria, to which the consul argues is caused by disaffection, FO/78/910, TNA, March 17, 1852, no. 9, from Richard Wood in Damascus to Stratford Canning.
- 20.
The demands being exerted on the Sublime Porte by France came at a time when France was also demanding the release and safe passage of two prisoners being held by the Ottoman Empire. The prisoners, accused of blaspheme, were of French origin and had converted to Islam. They were charged with refusal to participate in Ramadan, which was followed by their seeking protection at the French Embassy where they professed to be of the Christian faith. The Sublime Porte, unwilling to hand over the prisoners on principle that they had broken significant laws and wanting to reinforce the right of authority was challenged by the French who moved their navy to the coast of Tripoli and threatened the Sublime Porte with the bombardment of the city until the prisoners were returned. Fearing the attack, the Ottoman authorities permitted the safe passage of the two prisoners (Slade 1867, pp. 63–74).
- 21.
The French Consul in Aleppo writes of the Sultan’s position in the promulgation of the Tanzimat Decree. 166PO/D1/54, CADN, August 7, 1858, no. 15, from M. Bentivoglio in Aleppo to M. de Thouvenel, the French Ambassador in Istanbul.
- 22.
In the Andrassy Note, Count Andrassy states that the Hatt-ı Hümayun ‘is one of the results of the solicitudes of the Powers’ (Hertslet 1875c, vol. 4, p. 2421); The text of the Hatt-ı Hümayun can be found in Hertslet (1875b, vol. 2, pp. 1243–1249); In the writings of Viscount Strangford (1869, p. 131), it is noted ‘we [Britain] have a right to look for some public expression of gratitude from Russia for putting into her hands so powerful a solvent of Turkish dominion as the Hatt-ı Hümayun’.
- 23.
1SL/1/V/394, UK Parliamentary Archives, June 30, 1930, no. 131, ‘A/S du rapport de la France à la sociétè des nations sur la situation en Syrie’.
- 24.
1SL/1/V/394, UK Parliamentary Archives, August 29, 1930, no. 177, ‘A/S de la constitution Syrienne à le commission des mandats’.
- 25.
FO/141/453, TNA, March 19, 1924, no. 55, from M. Smart to M. MacDonald.
- 26.
FO/684/1, TNA, January 1923, ‘French Intelligence Summaries’.
- 27.
FO/684/1, TNA, January 1923, ‘French Intelligence Summaries’.
- 28.
FO/684/1, TNA, January 1923, ‘French Intelligence Summaries’.
- 29.
FO/684/1, TNA, January 1923, ‘French Intelligence Summaries’.
- 30.
FO/684/1, TNA, January 1923, ‘French Intelligence Summaries’.
- 31.
FO/684/1, TNA, July 4, 1924, no. 105, M. Smart in Damascus to British Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs.
- 32.
FO/684/1, TNA, July 4, 1924, no. 105, M. Smart in Damascus to British Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs.
- 33.
The articles included, Article 2, 73, 74, 75, and 112 of the Draft Constitution (Hourani 1946, pp. 191–193).
- 34.
1SL/1/V/394, UK Parliamentary Archives, March 9, 1930, from Cheikh Ismail el Hariri.
- 35.
1SL/1/V/394 March 9, 1930, from Cheikh Ismail el Hariri.
- 36.
1SL/1/V/394 March 9, 1930, from Cheikh Ismail el Hariri.
- 37.
1SL/1/V/394, UK Parliamentary Archives, September 10, 1936, ‘Manifeste du Bloc Nationaliste au novembre people Syrien’.
- 38.
FO/226/234, TNA, ‘Telegram from Prodrome’; FO/226/237, TNA, ‘Internal Politics, Lebanon and Syria, Alleged British Interference’.
- 39.
FO/226/240, TNA, January 7, 1943, ‘Elections’, from M. Lambert in Beirut.
- 40.
The Fed’an were primarily located in the Syrian Euphrates (Lange 2006, pp. 940–966).
- 41.
FO/226/240, TNA, February 9, 1943, from M. Lambert.
- 42.
FO/226/240, TNA, March 22, 1943, ‘Conversation between Captain Arab and Dr. Ayyoub Tabet’.
- 43.
FO/226/240, TNA, August 2, 1943, ‘Shukri Quwatli’s Speech delivered at the Dengiz Mosque on August 2nd, 1943’.
- 44.
FO/226/240, TNA, January 7, 1943, ‘Elections’, from M. Lambert in Beirut’.
- 45.
FO/226/252, TNA, ‘Internal Politics: Lebanon’.
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Delatolla, A. (2021). Preventing Autonomy: European Interests and the Application of a Standard of Civilization. In: Civilization and the Making of the State in Lebanon and Syria. Middle East Today. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57690-5_8
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