Abstract
In the pursuit of decarbonization, states in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), like their developed counterparts, must ensure the realization of climate change objectives. The obligations relate to limiting greenhouse gas emissions and overall temperature increase as stipulated by the international climate change regime. Besides, the States have to ensure access to affordable and clean energy for all people as per the 2015 Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Number 7. In SSA, South Africa has embraced the use of nuclear energy with many others like Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Ghana, Nigeria, Zambia and Ethiopia considering atomic power programmes. Although it does not fall within the ambits of renewable energy per se, nuclear energy is a two-sided sword tackling both the climate change concerns while addressing the access to energy challenges. This is crucial for Sub-Saharan Africa, where a significant portion of the population lacks access to modern and cleaner forms of energy. Effective regulation of the nuclear industry is vital in achieving the broader objectives of the climate change regime and meeting SSA energy needs. However, following the Chernobyl and Fukushima Daichi nuclear power accident disasters, populations are sceptical in embracing nuclear energy. Further, the utilization of nuclear energy poses questions relating to safety, environmental issues, and regulatory inadequacies, among other things. This chapter thus examines the major prospects and challenges of developing nuclear energy in the region while paying specific attention to environmental, safety and nuclear accident liability regulation under international law. Countries should incorporate these in the national legislation for achieving a productive nuclear energy industry. By comparing the SSA regime to that of the European Union (EU) with particular reference to France, ultimately, the chapter finds that for the region to reap the benefits of nuclear energy, it must put in place robust policies and regulatory measures to address the potential and resulting challenges.
Video interview by the author discussing this book chapter can be accessed at, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bt3n-ssgpjI&t=2868s. Last accessed on 1st September 2020.
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Notes
- 1.
The concept of sustainable development and sustainability as it appears today was first established by the Brundtland Commission in 1987. It is currently recognised as the standard definition, and it espouses that sustainable development is ‘a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.’ See ‘Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, 2015,’ http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1&Lang=E. See also the 2000 Millennium Development Goals, http://www.un.org/en/mdg/summit2010/pdf/List%20of%20MDGs%20English.pdf.
- 2.
See the Paris Agreement, 2015, United Nations, https://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/convention/application/pdf/english_paris_agreement.pdf.
- 3.
Ibid., Article 2.
- 4.
OECD, Risks and Benefits of Nuclear Energy, 2007, Nuclear Agency, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development pp. 19, 20.
- 5.
Patricia Birnie, Alan Boyle and Catherine Redgwell, International Law and the Environment, 2009, Third Edition, Oxford University Press p. 488.
- 6.
See Abigail Sah, Jessica Lovering, Omaro Maseli and Aishwarya Saxena, Atoms for Africa: Is There a Future for Civil Nuclear Energy in Sub-Saharan Africa? 2018, CGD Policy Paper. Washington, DC: Center for Global Development, https://www.cgdev.org/publication/atoms-africa-there-future-civilnuclear-energy-sub-saharan-africa.
- 7.
Ibid., at p. 5.
- 8.
International Energy Agency, Africa Energy Outlook 2019, 2019, World Energy Outlook Special Report, p. 18.
- 9.
For a full discussion on nuclear energy, watch the video featuring the author and other experts. Nuclear Energy Developments in Africa. Link, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bt3n-ssgpjI&t=136s.
- 10.
See SDG 7.2; Many NDCs currently feature renewable energy which shows its role in addressing climate change. Out of the 194 parties to the UNFCCC which adhered to the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the 2015 Paris Agreement, for instance, 145 referred to renewable energy as being key in the mitigation of climate change. In addition, 109 parties have incorporated some form of quantified targets for renewables. Several sub-Saharan African States have either ratified, accepted, approved or accented to the Paris Agreement. The Agreement is in force in the countries including Botswana, Cameroon, Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, Uganda, Malawi, South Africa, Rwanda, and Zimbabwe inter alia. They are thus enjoined to meet their own NDCs as well as adhering to objectives and targets of the Agreement. See IRENA, Untapped Potential for Climate Action: Renewable Energy in Nationally Determined Contributions, 2017, p. 7, International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi, http://irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2017/Nov/IRENA_Untapped_potential_NDCs_2017.pdf; See Also the UN Report of the Secretary-General, Special Edition: Progress Towards the Sustainable Development Goals, 2019, Economic and Social Council.
- 11.
World Bank, Wood-Based Biomass Energy Development for Sub-Saharan Africa: Issues and Approaches, at p. 8, 2011, Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP); World Bank, Washington, DC. © World Bank, https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/26149, License: CC BY 3.0 IGO.
- 12.
World Bank, 2011, ibid., at p. v.
- 13.
IEA, Africa Energy Outlook 2019, supra, at p. 86.
- 14.
Further information at, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/others/uranium-in-africa.aspx; See also OECD Nuclear Energy Agency and International Atomic Energy Agency, Uranium 2018: Resources, Production and Demand (‘Red Book’)—A Joint Report by the Nuclear Energy Agency and the International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.oecd-nea.org/ndd/pubs/2018/7413-uranium-2018.pdf.
- 15.
See World Nuclear Association, ‘Nuclear in Namibia,’ https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-g-n/namibia.aspx.
- 16.
See OECD, Risks and Benefits of Nuclear Energy, 2007, supra.
- 17.
Nalule, V.R.,. Transitioning to a Low Carbon Economy: Is Africa Ready to Bid Farewell to Fossil Fuels? In The Palgrave Handbook of Managing Fossil Fuels and Energy Transitions, 2020 (pp. 261–286). Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.
- 18.
IPCC, Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007, 2007, https://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/mains1.html.
- 19.
Ibid., p. 261.
- 20.
See Mark Maslin, Climate: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2013 at p. 120.
- 21.
In fact, about half of the world’s population and 80% of Africans rely on wood-based fuels for their energy needs. See World Bank, Wood-Based Biomass Energy Development for Sub-Saharan Africa: Issues and Approaches, at p. 8, 2011, Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP); World Bank, Washington, DC. © World Bank, https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/26149, License: CC BY 3.0 IGO.
- 22.
IPCC, Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report, 2014, Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, RK Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, pp. 45–47.
- 23.
US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Assessing the Multiple Benefits of Clean Energy: A Resource for States, 2011, at p. 2, https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2017-06/documents/epa_assessing_benefits_ch1.pdf.
- 24.
Laura Gil, Is Africa Ready For Nuclear Energy? Economic Growth Puts Pressure on Countries to Go Nuclear, But Hurdles Remain, September 2018, IAEA Office of Public Information and Communication, https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/is-africa-ready-for-nuclear-energy.
- 25.
See SDG 1.
- 26.
See SDG 2.
- 27.
See SDG 3.
- 28.
See SGG 5.
- 29.
See Nalule, V.R., Energy Poverty and Access Challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Role of Regionalism, 2018. Springer.
- 30.
See Nuclear Monitor, ‘Chernobyl: Chronology of a Disaster,’ A publication of the Wise Information Service on Energy (WISE) and the Nuclear Information and Resource Service (NIRS), March 2011 issue No. 724 pp. 2–4, https://www.nirs.org/wp-content/uploads/mononline/nm724.pdf (accessed on 10/4/2020).
- 31.
See, IAEA, Environmental Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident and Their Remediation: Twenty Years of Experience/Report of the Chernobyl, Forum Expert Group ‘Environment’.—Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2006. p.; 29 cm.—(Radiological assessment reports series, ISSN 1020-6566) STI/PUB/1239 ISBN 92–0–114705–8, https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1239_web.pdf (accessed on 10/4/2020).
- 32.
Stephen L. Kass, ‘International Law Lessons from the Fukushima Nuclear Disaster,’ New York Law Journal April 29, 2011, www.clm.com/publication.cfm?ID=324; World Nuclear Association www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-ofplants/fukushima-accident.aspx; World Nuclear Association <www.world-nuclear.org/focus/fukushima/fukushima-accident.aspx (all accessed on 10/4/2020).
- 33.
Eri Osaka, ‘Corporate Liability, Government Liability, and the Fukushima Nuclear Disaster, 21 Pac,’ Rim L & Pol’y J. 433 (2012): 433–459, https://digitalcommons.law.uw.edu/wilj/vol21/iss3/3 (accessed on 10/4/2020).
- 34.
Ibid., at p. 493.
- 35.
Ibid.
- 36.
The IAEA is a creation of the Statute of the IAEA which was approved on October 23, 1956, by the Conference on the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency.
- 37.
Created in 1928, the ICRP is a non-governmental organisation responsible for assessing the knowledge of States on the effects of radiation and advising on the most appropriate radiological protection rules to adopt.
- 38.
See Article 2 of the 1957 Eurotam Treaty.
- 39.
Raphael J. Heffron, Stephen F. Ashley and William J. Nuttall, ‘The Global Nuclear Liability Regime Post-Fukushima Daiichi,’ Progress in Nuclear Energy 90 (2016): 1–10 at pp.6–8.
- 40.
Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy, 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of January 28, 1964, and by the Protocol of November 16, 1982, https://www.oecd-nea.org/law/nlparis_conv.html.
- 41.
See Article 3 of the Paris Convention. See Heffron et al. (2016) supra., at pp. 3–4 on the channelling principle.
- 42.
Brussels Supplementary Convention, Convention of January 31, 1963, Supplementary to the Paris Convention, 1960, as amended by the additional Protocol of 1964 and by the Protocol of 1982 (‘Brussels Supplementary Convention’), https://www.oecd-nea.org/law/nlbrussels.html. See also Philippe Sands and Paolo Galizzi, ‘The 1968 Brussels Convention and Liability for Nuclear Damage,’ 1999, Nuclear Law Bulletin, NEA, OECD, No. 64, December 1999 at pp. 7–27 See also Novotná Marianna and Varga Peter, The Relation of the EU Law and the Nuclear Liability Legislation: Possibilities, Limits and Mutual Interaction, 2014, Societas et Iurisprudentia, Vol. 2. pp. 96–123; Shirley S. Ho, Jiemin Looi, Agnes S.F. Chuah, Alisius D. Leong, and Natalie Pang, ‘“I Can Live with Nuclear Energy If…”: Exploring Public Perceptions of Nuclear Energy in Singapore”, 2018, Energy Policy, Elsevier Publishers.
- 43.
Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (Vienna Convention), 1963. See also the 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage; 1999 Optional Protocol Concerning the Compulsory Settlement of Disputes to the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage; 2000 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage; and Optional Protocol Concerning the Compulsory Settlement of Disputes; 2002 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage; and the Optional Protocol Concerning the Compulsory Settlement of Disputes.
- 44.
Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage (CSC), 2015, 5.
- 45.
See the Protocol to Amend the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (1997 Vienna Protocol); the Protocol to Amend the Paris Convention on Nuclear Third Party Liability (2004 Protocol to the PC); Protocol to Amend the Brussels Supplementary Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy (2004).
- 46.
See Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future (United Nations General Assembly [“Brundtland Report”)], 1987, p. 43), http://www.un-documents.net/our-common-future.pdf; The World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development and Plan of Implementation, 2002, http://www.un-documents.net/jburgdec.htm.
- 47.
The Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context (Espoo Convention), 1991. See OECD, ‘The Application of the Espoo Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context to Nuclear Energy-Related Activities,’ October 2016, Nuclear Law Bulletin 97, pp. 63–69, Semi-annual ISSN: 16097378, https://doi.org/10.1787/16097378; See also the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR Convention) of 1992.
- 48.
See the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR Convention) of 1992.
- 49.
The Protocol on Strategic Environmental Assessment to the Espoo Convention (Kiev Protocol), 2003.
- 50.
The Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (Aarhus Convention), 1998. See also, Sam Emmerechts, ‘Environmental Law and Nuclear Law,’ Nuclear Law Bulletin 2008 (2) (2009): 91–110 at p. 91.
- 51.
Convention on Assistance in Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency (1986). It is under the auspices of the Director-General of the International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/infcirc336.pdf. See also the Convention on Nuclear Safety, 1994, https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/infcirc449.pdf.
- 52.
See Art. 1 of the Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (1986), https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/infcirc335.pdf.
- 53.
Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management (Joint Convention), 1997, https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/infcirc546.pdf.
- 54.
See Eiichiro Ochiai, ‘Devastation Caused by the Atomic Bombs: Hiroshima and Nagasaki,’ in Hiroshima to Fukushima, August 2014, Chap. 5, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-38727-2_5 See also Aljazera News- Japan, Hiroshima Atomic Bomb: The Us Nuclear Attack That Changed History…As Japan Marks the 74th Anniversary of the World’s First Nuclear Bomb Attack, We Examine The Events That Shaped History, January 6, 2019, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/08/hiroshima-atomic-bomb-nuclear-attack-changed-history-190806100602771.html (accessed on 25/04/2020).
- 55.
See Ira Helfand, Lachlan Forrow and Jaya Tiwari, ‘Nuclear Terrorism,’ BMJ. 2002 February 9; 324(7333): 356–359, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.324.7333.356.
- 56.
The Treaty on the Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (Non-Proliferation Treaty), 1968, https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/nuclear/npt/text. See also Laura Rockwood, ‘The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty: A Permanent Commitment to Disarmament and Non-Proliferation,’ Nuclear Law Bulletin No. 56 (1995)at pp. 9–18 at 9.
- 57.
See Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (CPPNM) of 1979, https://www.oecd-nea.org/law/multilateral-agreements/convention-protection-material.html; See also the Amendment to the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (Amendment to the CPPNM), 2005, https://www.oecd-nea.org/law/multilateral-agreements/amendment-convention-protection-material.html. See also RB Pope, ‘Packaging and Transport of Radioactive Material in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle,’ 2012, Nuclear Fuel Cycle Science and Engineering, Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy 2012, pp. 558–598, https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857096388.4.558.
- 58.
International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings (Terrorist Bombings Convention), 1997.
- 59.
International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (Terrorist Financing Convention), 1999; see also the International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (ICSANT or Nuclear Terrorism Convention), 2005; the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), 1996, Art. 1 (Not yet in force); and the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW or Nuclear Weapon Ban Treaty), 2017 (Not in force).
- 60.
World Nuclear Association, ‘Nuclear Power in France,’ https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-a-f/france.aspx (Accessed on 3/3/2020).
- 61.
See Andra—SN—CEA—IRSN, Radioactive Waste Management and Decommissioning in France, March 2013, https://www.oecd-nea.org/rwm/profiles/france_report.pdf (accessed on 7/4/2020).
- 62.
Transparency and Security in the nuclear field Act (June 13, 2006). The Act is available in English at, http://www.frenchnuclear-safety.fr/index.php/English-version/Asn-s-publications (accessed on 7/4/2020).
- 63.
Planning Act on the sustainable management of radioactive materials and waste (June 28, 2006). Act is available in English at, http://www.andra.fr/index.php?id=edition_1_5_2&recherche_thematique=all&global_id_item=387 (accessed on 7/4/2020).
- 64.
Chiponda Chimbelu, African Countries Mull Nuclear Energy as Russia Extends Offers, October 22, 2019, Business and Human Rights Centre- Deutsche Welle (DW), https://www.dw.com/en/african-countries-mull-nuclear-energy-as-russia-extends-offers/a-50872702?utm_source=Media+Review+for+October+23%2C+2019&utm_campaign=Media+Review+for+October+23%2C+2019&utm_medium=email (accessed on 29/4/2020).
- 65.
Ibid.
- 66.
Atomic Energy Act, 2008, https://ulii.org/ug/legislation/act/2015/24.
- 67.
Ibid., Regulation 2(a).
- 68.
Atomic Nuclear Regulations, 2012, https://ulii.org/ug/legislation/statutory-instrument/2012/4.
- 69.
The Energy Act No. 1 of 2019, https://www.nuclear.co.ke/images/downloads/EnergyAct__No.1%20of%202019.pdf.
- 70.
Ibid., s.54, also Ss.54–71.
- 71.
Information available, http://www.energy.gov.za/files/esources/nuclear/nuclear_back.html.
- 72.
Nuclear Energy Act 1999, Act 46 of 1999.
- 73.
National Radioactive Waste Disposal Institute Act of 2008; Act 53 of 2008.
- 74.
National Nuclear Regulator (NNR) Act 1999, Act 47 of 1999.
- 75.
Hazardous Substances Act 1973, Act 15 of 1973.
- 76.
Non-Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction Act 1993, Act 87 of 1993.
- 77.
Information available at the Republic of South Africa, Department of Energy website, http://www.energy.gov.za/files/policies_frame.html (accessed on 20/04/2020).
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Nakanwagi, S. (2021). Nuclear Energy & Energy Transitions: Prospects, Challenges and Safeguards in Sub-Saharan Africa. In: Nalule, V.R. (eds) Energy Transitions and the Future of the African Energy Sector. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56849-8_4
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56849-8_4
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Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
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Online ISBN: 978-3-030-56849-8
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