Abstract
The almost complete publication of Heidegger’s university courses and unpublished works of the 1930s and 1940s allows us to reconstruct the genesis of his reflection on modern technology. The first public statements about this subject, which date back to the Bremen Lectures (1949) and the famous Munich conference The Question Concerning Technology (1953), gave the impression of a sudden “Technical turn”, but today we are able to retrace the long maturation – which lasted almost twenty years – of this theme, which would become central and dominant in Heidegger’s thought, starting from the period following the Second World War. Heidegger admitted that the early reading of Ernst Jünger’s Total Mobilization (1930) and The Worker (1932) played a decisive role both in his ontological conception of the technology and in his original interpretation of Nietzsche, of the will to power and nihilism, which he undertook in these years. Starting with Jünger, Heidegger was able to grasp the ontological value and totalitarian character of modern technology, which influenced the Epoch of Totalitarianism as well as the present day.
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Notes
- 1.
M. Heidegger, Einblick in das was ist. Bremer Vorträge 1949, in Bremer und Freiburger Vorträge: 1. Einblick in das was ist. Bremer Vorträge 1949. 2. Grundsätze des Denkens. Freiburger Vorträge 1957, hrsg. von P. Jaeger, Gesamtausgabe, Bd. 79, Klostermann, Frankfurt a.M. 1994; trans. by Andrew J. Mitchell, Insight Into That Which Is: Bremen Lectures 1949, in Bremen and Freiburg Lectures: Insight Into That Which Is, and Basic Principles of Thinking, Indiana University Press, Bloomington 2012.
- 2.
On these first public appearances of Heidegger, see: H.W. Petzet, Auf einen Stern zugehen. Begegnungen und Gespräche mit Martin Heidegger 1929–1976, Societäts, Frankfurt a.M. 1983; trans. by Parvis Emad and Kenneth Maly, Encounters and dialogues with Martin Heidegger, 1929–1976, University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1993 and R. Safranski, Ein Meister aus Deutschland. Heidegger und seine Zeit, Hanser, München 1994; trans. by Ewald Osers, Martin Heidegger: between good and evil, Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Mass.) 1998.
- 3.
For the reconstruction of this difficult period, in which Heidegger saw his house requisitioned and had to deal with threats to confiscate his library due to his position as Rector of the University of Freiburg i.B. between 1933 and 1934, see the well-documented biographies of H. Ott, Martin Heidegger. Unterwegs zu seiner Biographie, Campus, Frankfurt 1988; trans. by Allan Blunden, Martin Heidegger: a political Life, HarperCollins, London 1993 and of R. Safranski, Martin Heidegger: between good and evil, cit.
- 4.
The conference was published, together with others, the following year: M. Heidegger, Die Frage nach der Technik (1953), in Vorträge und Aufsätze, hrsg. von F.-W. Herrmann, Gesamtausgabe, Bd. 7, Klostermann, Frankfurt a.M. 2000; trans. by William Lovitt, The Question Concerning Technology, in The Question Concerning Technology and Other Essays, Harper & Row, New York 1977.
- 5.
Heidegger had made significant hints at the condition of the modern and contemporary world, characterized by a growing and all-pervasive domination of computation and technical-scientific thought, in some conferences that would be published, together with others, only in 1950, ending an almost absolute “news blackout”, that had lasted through the years of the Nazi regime. These included, in particular: the 1938 conference, outlining the features of the modern world, The Age of the World Picture [Die Zeit des Weltbildes]; a summary, set forth in 1943, of the prolonged engagement, undertaken by Heidegger in the years immediately preceding, with the thought of Nietzsche, interpreted in the light of the completion of nihilism, Nietzsche’s Word: “God Is Dead” [Nietzsches Wort “Gott ist tot”]; and a conference, delivered in 1946, on the twentieth anniversary of Rilke’s death, whose poems were interpreted in the shadow of Nietzsche’s will to power, Why Poets? [Wozu Dichter?]. The collection, published in 1950, has the suggestive title Holzwege, hrsg. von F.-W. von Herrmann, Gesamtausgabe, Bd. 5, Klostermann, Frankfurt a.M. 1978; ed. and trans. by Julian Young and Kenneth Haynes, Off the Beaten Track, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (UK) 2002.
- 6.
A similar and broader reference to the atomic bomb would be made by Heidegger on the occasion of a subsequent conference held in his native Meßkirch on 30 October 1955 (M. Heidegger, Gelassenheit, in Gelassenheit, Neske, Pfullingen 1959; trans. by John M. Anderson and E. Hans Freund, Memorial Address, in Discourse On Thinking, Harper & Row, New York 1966).
- 7.
On the devastating, unprecedented carpet bombing of German cities, see the extraordinary account of W.G. Sebald, Luftkrieg und Literatur, Hanser, München 1999; trans. by Anthea Bell, On the Natural History of Destruction, Notting Hill, London 2012.
- 8.
M. Heidegger, Insight Into That Which Is, cit., p. 4.
- 9.
Ibidem.
- 10.
Faced with the now vast literature on the subject, which periodically regains momentum with the release of the many previously unpublished texts by Heidegger, I would like to highlight the following: P. Lacoue-Labarthe, La fiction du politique: Heidegger, l’art et la politique, Bourgois, Paris 1988; trans. by Chris Turner, Heidegger, Art and Political: The Fiction of the Political, Basil Blackwell, Oxford 1990; F. Fédier, Heidegger: anatomie d’un scandale, Laffont, Paris 1988; T. Rockmore, On Heidegger’s Nazism and Philosophy, University of California Press, Berkeley 1992; J. Young, Heidegger, Philosophy, Nazism, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (UK) 1997; F. Fistetti, Heidegger e la rivoluzione nazionalsocialista, in La Germania segreta di Heidegger, a cura di F. Fistetti, Dedalo, Bari 2001. For an overall evaluation of the various positions of the interpreters: D. Janicaud, L’ombre de cette pensée. Heidegger et la question politique, Millon, Grenoble 1990; trans. by Michael Gendre, The Shadow of that Thought: Heidegger and the Question of Politics, Northwestern University Press, Evanston 1996. Another issue, recently raised by the publication of the Schwarze Hefte, is that of Heidegger’s alleged anti-Semitism. On this subject, see D. Di Cesare, Heidegger e gli ebrei: i Quaderni neri, Bollati Boringhieri, Torino 2014; trans. by Murtha Baca, Heidegger and the Jews: The Black Notebooks, Polity, Cambridge (UK) 2018; J.-L. Nancy, Banalité de Heidegger, Galilée, Paris 2015; trans. by Jeff Fort, The Banality of Heidegger, Fordham University Press, New York 2017; P. Trawny, Heidegger und der Mythos der jüdischen Weltverschwörung, Klostermann, Frankfurt a.M. 2015; trans. by Andrew J. Mitchell, Heidegger and the Myth of a Jewish World Conspiracy, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 2015; Heidegger, die Juden, noch einmal, hrsg. von Peter Trawny und Andrew J. Mitchell, Klostermann, Frankfurt a.M. 2015; Heidegger’s Black Notebooks. Responses to Anti-Semitism, ed. by Andrew J. Mitchell and Peter Trawny, Columbia University Press, New York 2017.
- 11.
In the spring of 1946, Heidegger had to submit himself for three weeks to the care of Dr. Viktor von Gebsattel, a follower of the phenomenological-existential psychoanalytic approach, at the Schloß Hausbaden sanatorium in Badenweiler, as reported in the biographies by H. Ott and R. Safranski.
- 12.
M. Heidegger, Überwindung der Metaphysik, in Vorträge und Aufsätze, cit.; trans. by Joan Stambaugh, Overcoming Metaphysics, in The End of Philosophy, Harper and Row, New York 1973.
- 13.
To this period belong: the university courses dedicated to Nietzsche, already collected and published by Heidegger himself in 1961 (M. Heidegger, Nietzsche, Neske, Pfullingen 1961, 2 voll.; trans. and ed. by David F. Krell, Nietzsche I-IV, HarperCollins, New York 1991, 2 voll.); the 7 unpublished treatises (GA 65, GA 66, GA 67, GA 69, GA 70, GA 71, GA 72, the latter of forthcoming publication); the series of the Schwarzen Hefte; and the notes on Ernst Jünger (GA 90).
- 14.
Of the vast, perhaps excessive bibliography on the question of technology in Heidegger, I limit myself to mentioning the following: M. Ruggenini, Il soggetto e la tecnica. Heidegger interprete “inattuale” dell’epoca presente, Bulzoni, Roma 1977; E. Mazzarella, Tecnica e metafisica. Saggio su Heidegger, Guida, Napoli 1981; J. Loscerbo, Being and Technology: A Study in the Philosophy of Martin Heidegger, Nijhoff, The Hague 1981; P. Fandozi, Nihilism and Technology: A Heideggerian Investigation, University Press of America, Washington 1982; W. Schirmacher, Technik und Gelassenheit: Zeitkritik nach Heidegger, Alber, Freiburg i.B.-München 1983; G. Seubold, Heideggers Analyse der neuzeitliche Technik, Alber, Freiburg i.B.-München 1986; S. Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik, Niemeyer, Tübingen 1989; M.E. Zimmerman, Heidegger’s Confrontation with Modernity: Technology, Politics, and Art, Indiana University Press, Bloomington 1990; W. Lovitt, and H. Lovitt Brundage, Modern Technology in the Heideggerian Perspective, Edwin Mellen, Lewiston 1995; N.A. Corona-B. Irrgang, Technik als Geschick? Geschichtsphilosophie der Technik bei Martin Heidegger: Eine Handlungstheoretische Entgegung, Röll, Dettelbach 1999; S. Zenklusen, Seinsgeschichte und Technik bei Martin Heidegger. Begriffsklärung und Problematisierung, Tectum, Marburg 2002; T. Platte, Die Konstellation des Übergangs: Technik und Würde bei Heidegger, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2004; R. Rojcewicz, The Gods and Technology: A Reading of Heidegger, SUNY Press, Albany 2006; B.W. Davis, Heidegger and the Will: On the Way to Gelassenheit, Northwestern University Press, Evanston 2007; H. Ruin, Ge-stell: Enframing as the Essence of Technology, in Martin Heidegger: Key Concepts, ed. by Bret W. Davis, Acumen, Durham 2010; D. Ihde, Heidegger’s Technologies. Postphenomenological Perspectives, Fordham University Press, New York 2010; S. Gorgone, Nel deserto dell’umano. Potenza e Machenschaft nel pensiero di Martin Heidegger, Mimesis, Milano-Udine 2011; Heidegger on Technology, ed. by Aaron James Wendland, Christopher Merwin and Christos Hadjioannou, Routledge Taylor & Francis, New York 2019. I would also like to refer to C. Resta, Nichilismo Tecnica Mondializzazione. Saggi su Schmitt, Jünger, Heidegger e Derrida, Mimesis, Milano-Udine 2013.
- 15.
It is at this level that Heidegger’s analysis is intended, as clearly expressed at the outset of Die Frage nach der Technik: “the essence of technology is by no means anything technological [Die Technik ist nicht das gleiche wie das Wesen der Technik]” (M. Heidegger, The Question Concerning Technology, cit., p. 4). Through this kind of approach, Heidegger aimed to differentiate his thought on technology from a merely anthropological-instrumental conception or a sociological perspective.
- 16.
E. Jünger, Die Totale Mobilmachung (1930), in Essays I: Betrachtungen zur Zeit, Sämtliche Werke, Bd.7, Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 1980; trans. by Joel Golb and Richard Wolin, Total Mobilization, in The Heidegger Controversy: A Critical Reader, ed. by Richard Wolin, The MIT Press, Cambridge (Mass.) 1993. Die Totale Mobilmachung first appeared in the 1930 anthology Krieg und Krieger, hrsg. von Ernst Jünger, Junker und Dünnhaupt, Berlin 1930.
- 17.
E. Jünger, Der Arbeiter. Herrschaft und Gestalt (1932), in Essays II: Der Arbeiter, Sämtliche Werke, Bd. 8, Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 1981; trans. and ed. by Bogdan Costea and Laurence Paul Hemming, The Worker: Dominion and Form, Northwestern University Press, Evanston 2017.
- 18.
M. Heidegger, Zur Seinsfrage, in Wegmarken, hrsg. von F.-W. von Herrmann, Gesamtausgabe, Bd. 9, Klostermann, Frankfurt a.M. 1976; trans. by William McNeill, On the Question of Being, in Pathmarks, ed. by William McNeill, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (UK) 1998, pp. 294–295. This was Heidegger’s “reply”, which originally appeared in 1955 under the title Über „die Linie“in the Festschrift for the sixtieth birthday of Jünger, who, in 1950, in a similar circumstance and with the same title (but without the quotation marks), had offered his paper to the collection of writings in honor of Heidegger. Similar observations are found in the defense, written by Heidegger in 1945 after the war, to clear himself of the accusations of connivance with the Nazi regime, and these were made public for the first time in 1983: “In the year 1930 Ernst Jünger’s article on ‘Total Mobilisation’ („Die totale Mobilmachung“) had appeared; in this article the basic features of his book The Worker („Der Arbeiter“), which appeared in 1932, announced themselves. Together with my assistant Brock, I discussed these writings in a small circle and tried to show how they express a fundamental understanding of Nietzsche’s metaphysics, in so far as the history and present of the Western world are seen and foreseen in the horizon of this metaphysics. Thinking from these writings and, still more essentially, from their foundations, we thought what was coming, that is to say, we attempted to counter it, as we confronted it. […] Later, in the winter 1939/40, I discussed part of Jünger’s book The Worker once more with a circle of colleagues; I learned how even then these thoughts still seemed strange and put people off, until ‘the facts’ bore them out” (M. Heidegger, Das Rektorat 1933/34. Tatsachen und Gedanken (1945), in Reden und andere Zeugnisse eines Lebensweges (1910–1976), hrsg. von H. Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, Bd. 16, Klostermann, Frankfurt a.M. 2000; trans. by Karsten Harries, The Rectorate 1933/34: Facts and Thoughts, in The Self-Assertion of the German University and The Rectorate 1933/34: Facts and Thoughts, “Review of Metaphysics”, vol. 38, 3, 1985, pp. 484–485).
- 19.
While focusing above all on the theme of nihilism, the decisive importance of the encounter between Heidegger and Jünger has not escaped some scholars: cf. E. Mazzarella, Assiologia e ontologia del nichilismo. Su Jünger e Heidegger, in Storia Metafisica Ontologia. Per una storia della metafisica tra Otto e Novecento, Morano, Napoli 1987; M. Cacciari, Ernst Jünger e Martin Heidegger, in Ernst Jünger. Un convegno internazionale, a cura di P. Chiarini, Shakespeare and Company, Napoli 1987; G. Figal, Erörterung des Nihilismus. Ernst Jünger und Martin Heidegger, “Etudes Germaniques”, 4, 1996; G. Seubold, Martin Heidegger Stellungnahme zu Jüngers „Arbeiter“ im Spiegel seiner Technikkritik, in Titan Technik. Ernst und Friedrich Jünger über das technische Zeitalter, hrsg. von F. Strack, Königshausen & Neuman, Würzburg 2000; P. Trawny, Heidegger und „Der Arbeiter“. Zu Jüngers metaphysischer Grundstellung, in Verwandschaften, hrsg. von G. Figal-G. Knapp, Jünger-Studien, Bd. 2, Attempto, Tübingen 2003; C. Gentili, Heidegger tra Nietzsche e Jünger: la questione del “grande stile”, in Martin Heidegger trent’anni dopo, a cura di C. Gentili, F.-W. von Herrmann e A. Venturelli, il melangolo, Genova 2009; S. Gorgone, Machenschaft e metafisica del lavoro: Heidegger legge Jünger, in Nel deserto dell’umano, cit.; P. Amato, La morte (Heidegger-Jünger), in Il nichilismo e le forme. Ernst Jünger a confronto con Nietzsche, Heidegger, Benjamin, Schmitt, Mimesis, Milano-Udine 2014. I have already focused on this relationship in C. Resta, Heidegger e il tecnototalitarismo planetario, in Nichilismo Tecnica Mondializzazione, cit..
- 20.
On Heidegger’s interpretation of Nietzsche cf. O. Pöggeler, Friedrich Nietzsche und Martin Heidegger, Bouvier, Bonn 2002; R. Casale, L’esperienza Nietzsche di Heidegger tra nichilismo e Seinsfrage, Bibliopolis, Napoli 2005; a particularly penetrating analysis is offered by M. Haar, La fracture de l’Histoire. Douze essais sur Heidegger, Millon, Grenoble 1994.
- 21.
M. Heidegger, Overcoming Metaphysics, cit., p. 87.
- 22.
M. Heidegger, Beiträge zur Philosophie. (Vom Ereignis), hrsg. von F.-W. von Herrmann, Gesamtausgabe, Bd. 65, Klostermann, Frankfurt a.M. 1989; trans. by Richard Rojcewicz and Daniela Vallega-Neu, Contributions to Philosophy (Of the Event), Indiana University Press, Bloomington 2012, p. 78.
- 23.
It is in this light that we should read the controversial statement appearing in brackets in the definitive edition of the Introduction to metaphysics: “All this calls itself philosophy. In particular, what is peddled about nowadays as the philosophy of National Socialism, but which has not the least to do with the inner truth and greatness of this movement [namely, the encounter between global technology and modern humanity], is fishing in these troubled waters of ‘values’ and ‘totalities’” (M. Heidegger, Introduction to metaphysics, cit., p. 213).
- 24.
E. Jünger, In Stahlgewittern (1920), in Tagebücher I: Der erste Weltkrieg, Sämtliche Werke, Bd. 1, Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 1978; trans. by Michael Hofmann, Storm of Steel, Penguin, London 2004.
- 25.
M. Heidegger, Zu Ernst Jünger, hrsg. P. Trawny, Gesamtausgabe, Bd. 90, Klostermann, Frankfurt a.M. 2004, p. 242.
- 26.
Ivi, p. 227.
- 27.
Ivi, p. 214.
- 28.
Ivi, p. 217.
- 29.
Ivi, p. 218.
- 30.
Ivi, p. 227.
- 31.
Ivi, pp. 227–228.
- 32.
Ivi, p. 228.
- 33.
Ivi, p. 229.
- 34.
Ibidem.
- 35.
On the relationship between totality and totalitarianism that is implicated in the Jüngerian concept of technology, cf. S. Gorgone, Totalität und Totalitarismus, in Strahlungen und Annäherungen. Die stereoskopische Phänomenologie Ernst Jüngers, Attempo, Tübingen 2016.
- 36.
M. Heidegger, Zu Ernst Jünger, cit., p. 229.
- 37.
Ivi, p. 230.
- 38.
Ivi, p. 231.
- 39.
M. Heidegger, Introduction to metaphysics, cit., p. 48.
- 40.
M. Heidegger, The Rectorate 1933/34: Facts and Thoughts, cit., p. 485.
- 41.
M. Heidegger, Brief über den „Humanismus“, in Wegmarken (1919–1961), hrsg. von F.-W. von Herrmann, Gesamtausgabe, Bd. 9, Klostermann, Frankfurt a.M. 1976; trans. by Frank A. Capuzzi, Letter on “Humanism”, in Pathmarks, ed. by William McNeill, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (UK) 1998, p. 259.
- 42.
Ibidem.
- 43.
M. Heidegger, Zu Ernst Jünger, cit., pp. 230–231. A similar reference is also found in M. Heidegger, Parmenides (1942/43), hrsg. von M.S. Frings, Gesamtausgabe, Bd. 54, Klostermann, Frankfurt a.M. 1982; trans. by André Schuwer and Richard Rojcewicz, Parmenides, Indiana University Press, Bloomington 1992, p. 86, in which, after having quoted the Leninist formula “Bolshevism is Soviet power + electrification”, Heidegger comments on it thus: “Bolshevism is the ‘organic’, i.e., organized, calculating (and as +) conclusion of the unconditional power of the party along with complete technization. The bourgeois world has not seen and in part still does not want to see today that in ‘Leninism’, as Stalin calls this metaphysics, a metaphysical projection has been performed, on the basis of which in a certain way the metaphysical passion of today’s Russians for technology first becomes intelligible, and out of which the technical world is brought into power”.
- 44.
For an accurate and articulated analysis of this term, which is central in Heidegger’s treatises of the 1930s, through which he intends to refer to technology as a manipulative “doing” [machen], we refer to the work of S. Gorgone, Nel deserto dell’umano. Potenza e Machenschaft nel pensiero di Martin Heidegger, cit.
- 45.
For a further development and broader articulation of this concept, see C. Resta, Heidegger e il tecnototalitarismo planetario, in Nichilismo Tecnica Mondializzazione, cit.
- 46.
M. Heidegger, Overcoming Metaphysics, cit., p. 87.
- 47.
M. Haar, La fracture de l’histoire, cit., p. 217.
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Resta, C. (2021). The Age of the Totalitarian Domination of Technology. In: Di Martino, C. (eds) Heidegger and Contemporary Philosophy. Contributions to Hermeneutics, vol 8. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56566-4_1
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