Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Lung Cancer

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Practical Medical Oncology Textbook

Part of the book series: UNIPA Springer Series ((USS))

  • 3417 Accesses

Abstract

In the last few decades, several steps forward have been made in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of lung cancer. The advent of innovative therapies significantly improved both survival outcomes and quality of life of patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). The identification of oncogene drivers and the development of targeted therapies led to a radical shift from pathological to molecular classification of lung adenocarcinoma, establishing a new paradigm of “personalized therapy.” The recent understanding of the biological mechanisms underlying cancer immune evasion has allowed the development of a new class of immunomodulatory agents, known as immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), which are able to reactivate host immune response, offering the potential for long-term disease control and survival in a significant subgroup of patients. Encouraging activity with ICIs has recently emerged from early clinical trials including also patients with small cell lung cancer (SCLC), which is still considered as an “orphan” disease with very few treatment options available and poor prognosis. Finally the advent of liquid biopsy and next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies significantly improved the clinical management of lung cancer patients, offering the potential for non-invasive monitoring of tumor molecular profile and favoring the access to personalized treatment strategies.

Francesco Passiglia, Valerio Gristina, and Christian Rolfo should be considered equally co-first authors.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 179.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Cancer CSFLaB. https://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/lungb.html.

  2. Siegel RL, Miller KD, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2018. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018;68(1):7–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Pesch B, Kendzia B, Gustavsson P, et al. Cigarette smoking and lung cancer--relative risk estimates for the major histological types from a pooled analysis of case-control studies. Int J Cancer. 2012;131(5):1210–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Radzikowska E, Głaz P, Roszkowski K. Lung cancer in women: age, smoking, histology, performance status, stage, initial treatment and survival. Population-based study of 20 561 cases. Ann Oncol. 2002;13(7):1087–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Jemal A, Ma J, Rosenberg PS, Siegel R, Anderson WF. Increasing lung cancer death rates among young women in southern and midwestern States. J Clin Oncol. 2012;30(22):2739–44.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Smoking-attributable mortality, years of potential life lost, and productivity losses--United States, 2000–2004. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2008;57(45):1226–8.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Sun S, Schiller JH, Gazdar AF. Lung cancer in never smokers--a different disease. Nat Rev Cancer. 2007;7(10):778–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Straif K, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Baan R, et al. A review of human carcinogens--part C: metals, arsenic, dusts, and fibres. Lancet Oncol. 2009;10(5):453–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Warren GW, Marshall JR, Cummings KM, et al. Practice patterns and perceptions of thoracic oncology providers on tobacco use and cessation in cancer patients. J Thorac Oncol. 2013;8(5):543–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. Moolgavkar SH, Holford TR, Levy DT, et al. Impact of reduced tobacco smoking on lung cancer mortality in the United States during 1975–2000. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2012;104(7):541–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Chute CG, Greenberg ER, Baron J, Korson R, Baker J, Yates J. Presenting conditions of 1539 population-based lung cancer patients by cell type and stage in New Hampshire and Vermont. Cancer. 1985;56(8):2107–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Filderman AE, Shaw C, Matthay RA. Lung cancer. Part I: Etiology, pathology, natural history, manifestations, and diagnostic techniques. Investig Radiol. 1986;21(1):80–90.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Raz DJ, Glidden DV, Odisho AY, Jablons DM. Clinical characteristics and survival of patients with surgically resected, incidentally detected lung cancer. J Thorac Oncol. 2007;2(2):125–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Field JK, Oudkerk M, Pedersen JH, Duffy SW. Prospects for population screening and diagnosis of lung cancer. Lancet. 2013;382(9893):732–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Melamed MR, Flehinger BJ, Zaman MB, Heelan RT, Perchick WA, Martini N. Screening for early lung cancer. Results of the Memorial Sloan-Kettering study in New York. Chest. 1984;86(1):44–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Fontana RS, Sanderson DR, Woolner LB, Taylor WF, Miller WE, Muhm JR. Lung cancer screening: the Mayo program. J Occup Med. 1986;28(8):746–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Aberle DR, Adams AM, Berg CD, et al. Reduced lung-cancer mortality with low-dose computed tomographic screening. N Engl J Med. 2011;365(5):395–409.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Bach PB, Mirkin JN, Oliver TK, et al. Benefits and harms of CT screening for lung cancer: a systematic review. JAMA. 2012;307(22):2418–29.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Wender R, Fontham ET, Barrera E, et al. American Cancer Society lung cancer screening guidelines. CA Cancer J Clin. 2013;63(2):107–17.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. de Koning HJ, van der Aalst CM, de Jong PA, et al. Reduced lung-cancer mortality with volume CT screening in a randomized trial. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(6):503–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Travis WD, Brambilla E, Noguchi M, et al. International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer/American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society international multidisciplinary classification of lung adenocarcinoma. J Thorac Oncol. 2011;6(2):244–85.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Travis WD, Brambilla E, Riely GJ. New pathologic classification of lung cancer: relevance for clinical practice and clinical trials. J Clin Oncol. 2013;31(8):992–1001.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Ordóñez NG. Thyroid transcription factor-1 is a marker of lung and thyroid carcinomas. Adv Anat Pathol. 2000;7(2):123–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Kaufmann O, Fietze E, Mengs J, Dietel M. Value of p63 and cytokeratin 5/6 as immunohistochemical markers for the differential diagnosis of poorly differentiated and undifferentiated carcinomas. Am J Clin Pathol. 2001;116(6):823–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Pelosi G, Pasini F, Olsen Stenholm C, et al. p63 immunoreactivity in lung cancer: yet another player in the development of squamous cell carcinomas? J Pathol. 2002;198(1):100–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Flieder DB. Neuroendocrine tumors of the lung: recent developments in histopathology. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2002;8(4):275–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Früh M, De Ruysscher D, Popat S, et al. Small-cell lung cancer (SCLC): ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Ann Oncol. 2013;24(Suppl 6):vi99–105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Gabrielson E. Worldwide trends in lung cancer pathology. Respirology. 2006;11(5):533–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Parsons A, Daley A, Begh R, Aveyard P. Influence of smoking cessation after diagnosis of early stage lung cancer on prognosis: systematic review of observational studies with meta-analysis. BMJ. 2010;340:b5569.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Travis WD, Brambilla E, Noguchi M, et al. Diagnosis of lung cancer in small biopsies and cytology: implications of the 2011 International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer/American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society classification. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2013;137(5):668–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Mitsudomi T, Kosaka T, Endoh H, et al. Mutations of the epidermal growth factor receptor gene predict prolonged survival after gefitinib treatment in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer with postoperative recurrence. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23(11):2513–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Takano T, Ohe Y, Sakamoto H, et al. Epidermal growth factor receptor gene mutations and increased copy numbers predict gefitinib sensitivity in patients with recurrent non-small-cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23(28):6829–37.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Han JY, Park K, Kim SW, et al. First-SIGNAL: first-line single-agent iressa versus gemcitabine and cisplatin trial in never-smokers with adenocarcinoma of the lung. J Clin Oncol. 2012;30(10):1122–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Sharma SV, Bell DW, Settleman J, Haber DA. Epidermal growth factor receptor mutations in lung cancer. Nat Rev Cancer. 2007;7(3):169–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Rosell R, Moran T, Queralt C, et al. Screening for epidermal growth factor receptor mutations in lung cancer. N Engl J Med. 2009;361(10):958–67.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Arrieta O, Cardona AF, Federico Bramuglia G, et al. Genotyping non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) in Latin America. J Thorac Oncol. 2011;6(11):1955–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Bronte G, Rolfo C, Giovannetti E, et al. Are erlotinib and gefitinib interchangeable, opposite or complementary for non-small cell lung cancer treatment? Biological, pharmacological and clinical aspects. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 2014;89:300–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Passiglia F, Rizzo S, Rolfo C, et al. Metastatic site location influences the diagnostic accuracy of ctDNA EGFR- mutation testing in NSCLC patients: a pooled analysis. Curr Cancer Drug Targets. 2018;18(7):697–705. https://doi.org/10.2174/1568009618666180308125110.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Arteaga CL. Overview of epidermal growth factor receptor biology and its role as a therapeutic target in human neoplasia. Semin Oncol. 2002;29(5 Suppl 14):3–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Qiu M, Wang J, Xu Y, et al. Circulating tumor DNA is effective for the detection of EGFR mutation in non-small cell lung cancer: a meta-analysis. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev. 2015;24(1):206–12.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Luo J, Shen L, Zheng D. Diagnostic value of circulating free DNA for the detection of EGFR mutation status in NSCLC: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci Rep. 2014;4:6269.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Shaw AT, Yeap BY, Mino-Kenudson M, et al. Clinical features and outcome of patients with non-small-cell lung cancer who harbor EML4-ALK. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27(26):4247–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Chiarle R, Voena C, Ambrogio C, Piva R, Inghirami G. The anaplastic lymphoma kinase in the pathogenesis of cancer. Nat Rev Cancer. 2008;8(1):11–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Shaw AT, Ou SH, Bang YJ, et al. Crizotinib in ROS1-rearranged non-small-cell lung cancer. N Engl J Med. 2014;371(21):1963–71.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Kazandjian D, Blumenthal GM, Luo L, et al. Benefit-risk summary of crizotinib for the treatment of patients with ROS1 alteration-positive, metastatic non-small cell lung cancer. Oncologist. 2016;21(8):974–80.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Camidge DR, Kono SA, Flacco A, et al. Optimizing the detection of lung cancer patients harboring anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) gene rearrangements potentially suitable for ALK inhibitor treatment. Clin Cancer Res. 2010;16(22):5581–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Bergethon K, Shaw AT, Ou SH, et al. ROS1 rearrangements define a unique molecular class of lung cancers. J Clin Oncol. 2012;30(8):863–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Yi ES, Boland JM, Maleszewski JJ, et al. Correlation of IHC and FISH for ALK gene rearrangement in non-small cell lung carcinoma: IHC score algorithm for FISH. J Thorac Oncol. 2011;6(3):459–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Selinger CI, Rogers TM, Russell PA, et al. Testing for ALK rearrangement in lung adenocarcinoma: a multicenter comparison of immunohistochemistry and fluorescent in situ hybridization. Mod Pathol. 2013;26(12):1545–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Sakai Y, Nakai T, Ohbayashi C, et al. Immunohistochemical profiling of ALK fusion gene-positive adenocarcinomas of the lung. Int J Surg Pathol. 2013;21(5):476–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Park HS, Lee JK, Kim DW, et al. Immunohistochemical screening for anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) rearrangement in advanced non-small cell lung cancer patients. Lung Cancer. 2012;77(2):288–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Martinez P, Hernández-Losa J, Montero M, et al. Fluorescence in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry as diagnostic methods for ALK positive non-small cell lung cancer patients. PLoS One. 2013;8(1):e52261.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Conklin CM, Craddock KJ, Have C, Laskin J, Couture C, Ionescu DN. Immunohistochemistry is a reliable screening tool for identification of ALK rearrangement in non-small-cell lung carcinoma and is antibody dependent. J Thorac Oncol. 2013;8(1):45–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Alì G, Proietti A, Pelliccioni S, et al. ALK rearrangement in a large series of consecutive non-small cell lung cancers: comparison between a new immunohistochemical approach and fluorescent in situ hybridization for the screening of patients eligible for crizotinib treatment. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2014;138:1449–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Network CGAR. Comprehensive genomic characterization of squamous cell lung cancers. Nature. 2012;489(7417):519–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Peifer M, Fernández-Cuesta L, Sos ML, et al. Integrative genome analyses identify key somatic driver mutations of small-cell lung cancer. Nat Genet. 2012;44(10):1104–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  57. Sos ML, Dietlein F, Peifer M, et al. A framework for identification of actionable cancer genome dependencies in small cell lung cancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012;109(42):17034–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  58. Spiro SG, Gould MK, Colice GL, American College of Chest Physicians. Initial evaluation of the patient with lung cancer: symptoms, signs, laboratory tests, and paraneoplastic syndromes: ACCP evidenced-based clinical practice guidelines (2nd edition). Chest. 2007;132(3 Suppl):149S–60S.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Pretreatment evaluation of non-small-cell lung cancer. The American Thoracic Society and the European Respiratory Society. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;156(1):320–32.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Hamilton W, Peters TJ, Round A, Sharp D. What are the clinical features of lung cancer before the diagnosis is made? A population based case-control study. Thorax. 2005;60(12):1059–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  61. Stankey RM, Roshe J, Sogocio RM. Carcinoma of the lung and dysphagia. Dis Chest. 1969;55(1):13–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Kamel EM, Goerres GW, Burger C, von Schulthess GK, Steinert HC. Recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy in patients with lung cancer: detection with PET-CT image fusion -- report of six cases. Radiology. 2002;224(1):153–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Sahn SA. Pleural diseases related to metastatic malignancies. Eur Respir J. 1997;10(8):1907–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Kim SH, Kwak MH, Park S, et al. Clinical characteristics of malignant pericardial effusion associated with recurrence and survival. Cancer Res Treat. 2010;42(4):210–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Yellin A, Rosen A, Reichert N, Lieberman Y. Superior vena cava syndrome. The myth--the facts. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1990;141(5 Pt 1):1114–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Rice TW, Rodriguez RM, Light RW. The superior vena cava syndrome: clinical characteristics and evolving etiology. Medicine (Baltimore). 2006;85(1):37–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Arcasoy SM, Jett JR. Superior pulmonary sulcus tumors and Pancoast’s syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1997;337(19):1370–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Coleman RE. Metastatic bone disease: clinical features, pathophysiology and treatment strategies. Cancer Treat Rev. 2001;27(3):165–76.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Cheng H, Perez-Soler R. Leptomeningeal metastases in non-small-cell lung cancer. Lancet Oncol. 2018;19(1):e43–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Pelosof LC, Gerber DE. Paraneoplastic syndromes: an approach to diagnosis and treatment. Mayo Clin Proc. 2010;85(9):838–54.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  71. Ost DE, Jim Yeung SC, Tanoue LT, Gould MK. Clinical and organizational factors in the initial evaluation of patients with lung cancer: diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2013;143(5 Suppl):e121S–41S.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  72. Christensen JD, Patz EF. Future trends in lung cancer diagnosis. Radiol Clin N Am. 2012;50(5):1001–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Silvestri GA, Gonzalez AV, Jantz MA, et al. Methods for staging non-small cell lung cancer: diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2013;143(5 Suppl):e211S–50S.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Patel VK, Naik SK, Naidich DP, et al. A practical algorithmic approach to the diagnosis and management of solitary pulmonary nodules: part 1: radiologic characteristics and imaging modalities. Chest. 2013;143(3):825–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Voigt W. Advanced PET imaging in oncology: status and developments with current and future relevance to lung cancer care. Curr Opin Oncol. 2018;30:77–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Rivera MP, Mehta AC, Wahidi MM. Establishing the diagnosis of lung cancer: diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2013;143(5 Suppl):e142S–65S.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Adams K, Shah PL, Edmonds L, Lim E. Test performance of endobronchial ultrasound and transbronchial needle aspiration biopsy for mediastinal staging in patients with lung cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis. Thorax. 2009;64(9):757–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Gu P, Zhao YZ, Jiang LY, Zhang W, Xin Y, Han BH. Endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration for staging of lung cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Cancer. 2009;45(8):1389–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Um SW, Kim HK, Jung SH, et al. Endobronchial ultrasound versus mediastinoscopy for mediastinal nodal staging of non-small-cell lung cancer. J Thorac Oncol. 2015;10(2):331–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Capalbo E, Peli M, Lovisatti M, et al. Trans-thoracic biopsy of lung lesions: FNAB or CNB? Our experience and review of the literature. Radiol Med. 2014;119(8):572–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Beslic S, Zukic F, Milisic S. Percutaneous transthoracic CT guided biopsies of lung lesions; fine needle aspiration biopsy versus core biopsy. Radiol Oncol. 2012;46(1):19–22.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  82. Vial MR, Eapen GA, Casal RF, et al. Combined pleuroscopy and endobronchial ultrasound for diagnosis and staging of suspected lung cancer. Respir Med Case Rep. 2018;23:49–51.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Postmus PE, Kerr KM, Oudkerk M, et al. Early and locally advanced non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC): ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Ann Oncol. 2017;28(suppl_4):iv1–iv21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Czarnecka-Kujawa K, Yasufuku K. The role of endobronchial ultrasound versus mediastinoscopy for non-small cell lung cancer. J Thorac Dis. 2017;9(Suppl 2):S83–97.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  85. Sehgal IS, Dhooria S, Aggarwal AN, Behera D, Agarwal R. Endosonography versus mediastinoscopy in mediastinal staging of lung cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Thorac Surg. 2016;102(5):1747–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Vilmann P, Clementsen PF, Colella S, et al. Combined endobronchial and esophageal endosonography for the diagnosis and staging of lung cancer: European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) guideline, in cooperation with the European Respiratory Society (ERS) and the European Society of Thoracic Surgeons (ESTS). Endoscopy. 2015;47(6):545–59.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Ettinger DS, Wood DE, Aisner DL, et al. Non-small cell lung cancer, version 5.2017, NCCN clinical practice guidelines in oncology. J Natl Compr Cancer Netw. 2017;15(4):504–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  88. Goldstraw P, Chansky K, Crowley J, et al. The IASLC lung cancer staging project: proposals for revision of the TNM stage groupings in the forthcoming (eighth) edition of the TNM classification for lung cancer. J Thorac Oncol. 2016;11(1):39–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Rosen JE, Keshava HB, Yao X, Kim AW, Detterbeck FC, Boffa DJ. The natural history of operable non-small cell lung cancer in the national cancer database. Ann Thorac Surg. 2016;101(5):1850–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Ginsberg RJ, Rubinstein LV. Randomized trial of lobectomy versus limited resection for T1 N0 non-small cell lung cancer. Lung Cancer Study Group. Ann Thorac Surg. 1995;60(3):615–22; discussion 622–613.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Rami-Porta R, Wittekind C, Goldstraw P, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer (IASLC) Staging Committee. Complete resection in lung cancer surgery: proposed definition. Lung Cancer. 2005;49(1):25–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Petrella F, Spaggiari L. The smaller the better: a new concept in thoracic surgery? Lancet Oncol. 2016;17(6):699–700.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Bendixen M, Jørgensen OD, Kronborg C, Andersen C, Licht PB. Postoperative pain and quality of life after lobectomy via video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery or anterolateral thoracotomy for early stage lung cancer: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Oncol. 2016;17(6):836–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Veluswamy RR, Ezer N, Mhango G, et al. Limited resection versus lobectomy for older patients with early-stage lung cancer: impact of histology. J Clin Oncol. 2015;33(30):3447–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  95. Koike T, Kitahara A, Sato S, et al. Lobectomy versus segmentectomy in radiologically pure solid small-sized non-small cell lung cancer. Ann Thorac Surg. 2016;101(4):1354–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Linden PA, Bueno R, Colson YL, et al. Lung resection in patients with preoperative FEV1 < 35% predicted. Chest. 2005;127(6):1984–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Baumann P, Nyman J, Hoyer M, et al. Outcome in a prospective phase II trial of medically inoperable stage I non-small-cell lung cancer patients treated with stereotactic body radiotherapy. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27(20):3290–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Ricardi U, Filippi AR, Guarneri A, et al. Stereotactic body radiation therapy for early stage non-small cell lung cancer: results of a prospective trial. Lung Cancer. 2010;68(1):72–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Timmerman R, Paulus R, Galvin J, et al. Stereotactic body radiation therapy for inoperable early stage lung cancer. JAMA. 2010;303(11):1070–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  100. Chang JY, Liu YH, Zhu Z, et al. Stereotactic ablative radiotherapy: a potentially curable approach to early stage multiple primary lung cancer. Cancer. 2013;119(18):3402–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Chemotherapy in non-small cell lung cancer: a meta-analysis using updated data on individual patients from 52 randomised clinical trials. Non-small Cell Lung Cancer Collaborative Group. BMJ. 1995;311(7010):899–909.

    Google Scholar 

  102. Pignon JP, Tribodet H, Scagliotti GV, et al. Lung adjuvant cisplatin evaluation: a pooled analysis by the LACE Collaborative Group. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26(21):3552–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Douillard JY, Rosell R, De Lena M, et al. Adjuvant vinorelbine plus cisplatin versus observation in patients with completely resected stage IB-IIIA non-small-cell lung cancer (Adjuvant Navelbine International Trialist Association [ANITA]): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Oncol. 2006;7(9):719–27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Butts CA, Ding K, Seymour L, et al. Randomized phase III trial of vinorelbine plus cisplatin compared with observation in completely resected stage IB and II non-small-cell lung cancer: updated survival analysis of JBR-10. J Clin Oncol. 2010;28(1):29–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Strauss GM, Herndon JE, Maddaus MA, et al. Adjuvant paclitaxel plus carboplatin compared with observation in stage IB non-small-cell lung cancer: CALGB 9633 with the Cancer and Leukemia Group B, Radiation Therapy Oncology Group, and North Central Cancer Treatment Group Study Groups. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26(31):5043–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  106. Burdett S, Stewart LA, Rydzewska L. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature: chemotherapy and surgery versus surgery alone in non-small cell lung cancer. J Thorac Oncol. 2006;1(7):611–21.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Song WA, Zhou NK, Wang W, et al. Survival benefit of neoadjuvant chemotherapy in non-small cell lung cancer: an updated meta-analysis of 13 randomized control trials. J Thorac Oncol. 2010;5(4):510–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. NSCLC Meta-analysis Collaborative Group. Preoperative chemotherapy for non-small-cell lung cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data. Lancet. 2014;383(9928):1561–71.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  109. Wu Y, Tsuboi M, M.D., He J et al. Osimertinib in Resected EGFR-Mutated Non–Small-Cell Lung Cancer. NEJM 2020, 10.1056/NEJMoa2027071.

    Google Scholar 

  110. PORT Meta-analysis Trialists Group. Postoperative radiotherapy for non-small cell lung cancer. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;(2):CD002142.

    Google Scholar 

  111. Yu JB, Decker RH, Detterbeck FC, Wilson LD. Surveillance epidemiology and end results evaluation of the role of surgery for stage I small cell lung cancer. J Thorac Oncol. 2010;5(2):215–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Le Pechoux C, Pourel N, Barlesi F et al. An international randomized trial, comparing post-operative conformal radiotherapy (PORT) to no PORT, in patients with completely resected non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and mediastinal N2 involvement: Primary end-point analysis of LungART. Annals of Oncology (2020) 31 (suppl_4): S1142-S1215. 10.1016/annonc/annonc325.

    Google Scholar 

  113. Schreiber D, Rineer J, Weedon J, et al. Survival outcomes with the use of surgery in limited-stage small cell lung cancer: should its role be re-evaluated? Cancer. 2010;116(5):1350–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Aupérin A, Le Péchoux C, Rolland E, et al. Meta-analysis of concomitant versus sequential radiochemotherapy in locally advanced non-small-cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2010;28(13):2181–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Yamamoto N, Nakagawa K, Nishimura Y, et al. Phase III study comparing second- and third-generation regimens with concurrent thoracic radiotherapy in patients with unresectable stage III non-small-cell lung cancer: West Japan Thoracic Oncology Group WJTOG0105. J Clin Oncol. 2010;28(23):3739–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Hanna N, Neubauer M, Yiannoutsos C, et al. Phase III study of cisplatin, etoposide, and concurrent chest radiation with or without consolidation docetaxel in patients with inoperable stage III non-small-cell lung cancer: the Hoosier Oncology Group and U.S. Oncology. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26(35):5755–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Albain KS, Crowley JJ, Turrisi AT, et al. Concurrent cisplatin, etoposide, and chest radiotherapy in pathologic stage IIIB non-small-cell lung cancer: a Southwest Oncology Group phase II study, SWOG 9019. J Clin Oncol. 2002;20(16):3454–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Antonia SJ, Villegas A, Daniel D, et al. Durvalumab after chemoradiotherapy in stage III non-small-cell lung cancer. N Engl J Med. 2017;377(20):1919–29.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Baas P, Belderbos JS, Senan S, et al. Concurrent chemotherapy (carboplatin, paclitaxel, etoposide) and involved-field radiotherapy in limited stage small cell lung cancer: a Dutch multicenter phase II study. Br J Cancer. 2006;94(5):625–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  120. Aupérin A, Arriagada R, Pignon JP, et al. Prophylactic cranial irradiation for patients with small-cell lung cancer in complete remission. Prophylactic Cranial Irradiation Overview Collaborative Group. N Engl J Med. 1999;341(7):476–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Novello S, Barlesi F, Califano R, et al. Metastatic non-small-cell lung cancer: ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Ann Oncol. 2016;27(suppl 5):v1–v27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Mok TS, Wu YL, Thongprasert S, et al. Gefitinib or carboplatin-paclitaxel in pulmonary adenocarcinoma. N Engl J Med. 2009;361(10):947–57.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Mitsudomi T, Morita S, Yatabe Y, et al. Gefitinib versus cisplatin plus docetaxel in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer harbouring mutations of the epidermal growth factor receptor (WJTOG3405): an open label, randomised phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2010;11(2):121–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Maemondo M, Inoue A, Kobayashi K, et al. Gefitinib or chemotherapy for non-small-cell lung cancer with mutated EGFR. N Engl J Med. 2010;362(25):2380–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Rosell R, Carcereny E, Gervais R, et al. Erlotinib versus standard chemotherapy as first-line treatment for European patients with advanced EGFR mutation-positive non-small-cell lung cancer (EURTAC): a multicentre, open-label, randomised phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2012;13(3):239–46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Zhou C, Wu YL, Chen G, et al. Erlotinib versus chemotherapy as first-line treatment for patients with advanced EGFR mutation-positive non-small-cell lung cancer (OPTIMAL, CTONG-0802): a multicentre, open-label, randomised, phase 3 study. Lancet Oncol. 2011;12(8):735–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Sequist LV, Yang JC, Yamamoto N, et al. Phase III study of afatinib or cisplatin plus pemetrexed in patients with metastatic lung adenocarcinoma with EGFR mutations. J Clin Oncol. 2013;31(27):3327–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Wu YL, Zhou C, Hu CP, et al. Afatinib versus cisplatin plus gemcitabine for first-line treatment of Asian patients with advanced non-small-cell lung cancer harbouring EGFR mutations (LUX-Lung 6): an open-label, randomised phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2014;15(2):213–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Soria JC, Ohe Y, Vansteenkiste J, et al. Osimertinib in untreated EGFR-mutated advanced non-small-cell lung cancer. N Engl J Med. 2018;378(2):113–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Ramalingam SS, Vansteenkiste J, Planchard D, et al. Overall survival with osimertinib in untreated. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(1):41–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Gristina V, Malapelle U, Galvano A, et al. The significance of epidermal growth factor receptor uncommon mutations in non-small cell lung cancer: a systematic review and critical appraisal. Cancer Treat Rev. 2020;85:101994.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Mok T, Kim DW, Wu YL, et al. First-line crizotinib versus pemetrexed cisplatin or pemetrexed carboplatin in patients with advanced ALK-positive non-squamous non small-cell lung cancer: results of a phase III study (PROFILE 1014). In J Clin Oncol. 2014;32(5s):(suppl; abstr 8002).

    Google Scholar 

  133. Hida T, Nokihara H, Kondo M, et al. Alectinib versus crizotinib in patients with ALK-positive non-small-cell lung cancer (J-ALEX): an open-label, randomised phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2017;390(10089):29–39.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Peters S, Camidge DR, Shaw AT, et al. Alectinib versus crizotinib in untreated ALK-positive non-small-cell lung cancer. N Engl J Med. 2017;377(9):829–38.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. List A, Barraco N, Bono M, Insalaco L, Castellana L, Cutaia S, Ricciardi MR, Gristina V, Bronte E, Pantuso G, Passiglia F. Immuno-targeted combinations in oncogene-addicted non-small cell lung cancer. Transl Cancer Res. 2018;8:S55–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  136. Solomon B, Bauer TM, De Marinis F et al. Lorlatinib vs crizotinib in the first-line treatment of patients (pts) with advanced ALK-positive non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC): Results of the phase III CROWN study. Annals of Oncology (2020) 31 (suppl_4): S1142-S1215. 10.1016/annonc/annonc325.

    Google Scholar 

  137. Planchard D, Smit EF, Groen HJM, et al. Dabrafenib plus trametinib in patients with previously untreated BRAF. Lancet Oncol. 2017;18(10):1307–16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Seton-Rogers S. KRAS-G12C in the crosshairs. Nat Rev Cancer. 2020;20(1):3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Drilon A, Laetsch TW, Kummar S, et al. Efficacy of larotrectinib in TRK fusion-positive cancers in adults and children. N Engl J Med. 2018;378(8):731–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  140. Doebele RC, Drilon A, Paz-Ares L, et al. Entrectinib in patients with advanced or metastatic NTRK fusion-positive solid tumours: integrated analysis of three phase 1-2 trials. Lancet Oncol. 2020;21(2):271–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Rolfo C, Russo A. Mutations in non-small cell lung cancer: a herculean effort to hit the target. Cancer Discov. 2020;10(5):643–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Russo A, Lopes AR, McCusker MG, et al. New targets in lung cancer (excluding EGFR, ALK, ROS1). Curr Oncol Rep. 2020;22(5):48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Rolfo C, Passiglia F, Ostrowski M, et al. Improvement in lung cancer outcomes with targeted therapies: an update for family physicians. J Am Board Fam Med. 2015;28(1):124–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Rolfo C, Giovannetti E, Hong DS, et al. Novel therapeutic strategies for patients with NSCLC that do not respond to treatment with EGFR inhibitors. Cancer Treat Rev. 2014;40(8):990–1004.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Passiglia F, Bronte G, Castiglia M, et al. Prognostic and predictive biomarkers for targeted therapy in NSCLC: for whom the bell tolls? Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2015:1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  146. Mok TS, Wu YL, Ahn MJ, et al. Osimertinib or platinum-pemetrexed in EGFR T790M-positive lung cancer. N Engl J Med. 2017;376(7):629–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Chouaid C, Dujon C, Do P, et al. Feasibility and clinical impact of re-biopsy in advanced non small-cell lung cancer: a prospective multicenter study in a real-world setting (GFPC study 12-01). Lung Cancer. 2014;86(2):170–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Wu Y, Liu H, Shi X, Song Y. Can EGFR mutations in plasma or serum be predictive markers of non-small-cell lung cancer? A meta-analysis. Lung Cancer. 2015;88(3):246–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Qian X, Liu J, Sun Y, et al. Circulating cell-free DNA has a high degree of specificity to detect exon 19 deletions and the single-point substitution mutation L858R in non-small cell lung cancer. Oncotarget. 2016;7(20):29154–65.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  150. Oxnard GR, Thress KS, Alden RS, et al. Association between plasma genotyping and outcomes of treatment with osimertinib (AZD9291) in advanced non-small-cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2016;34(28):3375–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  151. Passiglia F, Rizzo S, Rolfo C, et al. Metastatic site location influences the diagnostic accuracy of ctDNA EGFR- mutation testing in NSCLC patients: a pooled analysis. Curr Cancer Drug Targets. 2018;18:697–705.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Russo A, Incorvaia L, Del Re M, et al. The molecular profiling of solid tumors by liquid biopsy: a position paper of the AIOM-SIAPEC-IAP-SIBioC-SIC-SIF Italian Scientific Societies [published online ahead of print, 2021 Jun 3]. ESMO Open. 2021;6(3):100164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esmoop.2021.100164.

  153. Rolfo C, Passiglia F, Castiglia M, et al. ALK and crizotinib: after the honeymoon…what else? Resistance mechanisms and new therapies to overcome it. Transl Lung Cancer Res. 2014;3(4):250–61.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  154. Camidge DR, Pao W, Sequist LV. Acquired resistance to TKIs in solid tumours: learning from lung cancer. Nat Rev Clin Oncol. 2014;11(8):473–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Costa DB. Resistance to ALK inhibitors: pharmacokinetics, mutations or bypass signaling? Cell Cycle. 2017;16(1):19–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Shaw AT, Kim TM, Crinò L, et al. Ceritinib versus chemotherapy in patients with ALK-rearranged non-small-cell lung cancer previously given chemotherapy and crizotinib (ASCEND-5): a randomised, controlled, open-label, phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2017;18(7):874–86.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Larkins E, Blumenthal GM, Chen H, et al. FDA approval: alectinib for the treatment of metastatic, ALK-positive non-small cell lung cancer following crizotinib. Clin Cancer Res. 2016;22(21):5171–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Gadgeel SM, Shaw AT, Govindan R, et al. Pooled analysis of CNS response to alectinib in two studies of pretreated patients with ALK-positive non-small-cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2016;34(34):4079–85.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  159. Metro G, Tazza M, Matocci R, Chiari R, Crinò L. Optimal management of ALK-positive NSCLC progressing on crizotinib. Lung Cancer. 2017;106:58–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Incorvaia L, Fanale D, Badalamenti G, et al. Programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) as a predictive biomarker for pembrolizumab therapy in patients with advanced non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Adv Ther. 2019;36(10):2600–17.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  161. Reck M, Rodríguez-Abreu D, Robinson AG, et al. Pembrolizumab versus chemotherapy for PD-L1-positive non-small-cell lung cancer. N Engl J Med. 2016;375(19):1823–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Langer CJ, Gadgeel SM, Borghaei H, et al. Carboplatin and pemetrexed with or without pembrolizumab for advanced, non-squamous non-small-cell lung cancer: a randomised, phase 2 cohort of the open-label KEYNOTE-021 study. Lancet Oncol. 2016;17(11):1497–508.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  163. Hellmann MD, Rizvi NA, Goldman JW, et al. Nivolumab plus ipilimumab as first-line treatment for advanced non-small-cell lung cancer (CheckMate 012): results of an open-label, phase 1, multicohort study. Lancet Oncol. 2017;18(1):31–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Reck M, Borghaei H, O'Byrne KJ. Nivolumab plus ipilimumab in non-small-cell lung cancer. Future Oncol. 2019;15(19):2287–302.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Rizvi NA, Cho BC, Reinmuth N, et al. Durvalumab with or without tremelimumab vs standard chemotherapy in first-line treatment of metastatic non-small cell lung cancer: the MYSTIC phase 3 randomized clinical trial. JAMA Oncol. 2020;6:661–74.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  166. Scagliotti GV, Parikh P, von Pawel J, et al. Phase III study comparing cisplatin plus gemcitabine with cisplatin plus pemetrexed in chemotherapy-naive patients with advanced-stage non-small-cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26(21):3543–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Paz-Ares LG, de Marinis F, Dediu M, et al. PARAMOUNT: final overall survival results of the phase III study of maintenance pemetrexed versus placebo immediately after induction treatment with pemetrexed plus cisplatin for advanced nonsquamous non-small-cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2013;31(23):2895–902.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. Sandler A, Yi J, Dahlberg S, et al. Treatment outcomes by tumor histology in Eastern Cooperative Group Study E4599 of bevacizumab with paclitaxel/carboplatin for advanced non-small cell lung cancer. J Thorac Oncol. 2010;5(9):1416–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Reck M, von Pawel J, Zatloukal P, et al. Overall survival with cisplatin-gemcitabine and bevacizumab or placebo as first-line therapy for nonsquamous non-small-cell lung cancer: results from a randomised phase III trial (AVAiL). Ann Oncol. 2010;21(9):1804–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  170. Thatcher N, Hirsch FR, Luft AV, et al. Necitumumab plus gemcitabine and cisplatin versus gemcitabine and cisplatin alone as first-line therapy in patients with stage IV squamous non-small-cell lung cancer (SQUIRE): an open-label, randomised, controlled phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2015;16(7):763–74.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. Genova C, Socinski MA, Hozak RR, et al. EGFR gene copy number by FISH may predict outcome of necitumumab in squamous lung carcinomas: analysis from the SQUIRE study. J Thorac Oncol. 2018;13:228–36.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Brahmer J, Reckamp KL, Baas P, et al. Nivolumab versus docetaxel in advanced squamous-cell non-small-cell lung cancer. N Engl J Med. 2015;373(2):123–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  173. Borghaei H, Paz-Ares L, Horn L, et al. Nivolumab versus docetaxel in advanced nonsquamous non-small-cell lung cancer. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:1627–39.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  174. Herbst RS, Baas P, Kim DW, et al. Pembrolizumab versus docetaxel for previously treated, PD-L1-positive, advanced non-small-cell lung cancer (KEYNOTE-010): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2016;387(10027):1540–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Rittmeyer A, Barlesi F, Waterkamp D, et al. Atezolizumab versus docetaxel in patients with previously treated non-small-cell lung cancer (OAK): a phase 3, open-label, multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2017;389(10066):255–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. Passiglia F, Galvano A, Rizzo S, et al. Looking for the best immune-checkpoint inhibitor in pre-treated NSCLC patients: an indirect comparison between nivolumab, pembrolizumab and atezolizumab. Int J Cancer. 2018;142(6):1277–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Champiat S, Lambotte O, Barreau E, et al. Management of immune checkpoint blockade dysimmune toxicities: a collaborative position paper. Ann Oncol. 2016;27(4):559–74.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Michot JM, Bigenwald C, Champiat S, et al. Immune-related adverse events with immune checkpoint blockade: a comprehensive review. Eur J Cancer. 2016;54:139–48.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. Reck M, Kaiser R, Mellemgaard A, et al. Docetaxel plus nintedanib versus docetaxel plus placebo in patients with previously treated non-small-cell lung cancer (LUME-Lung 1): a phase 3, double-blind, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Oncol. 2014;15(2):143–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  180. Garon EB, Ciuleanu TE, Arrieta O, et al. Ramucirumab plus docetaxel versus placebo plus docetaxel for second-line treatment of stage IV non-small-cell lung cancer after disease progression on platinum-based therapy (REVEL): a multicentre, double-blind, randomised phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2014;384(9944):665–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Soria JC, Felip E, Cobo M, et al. Afatinib versus erlotinib as second-line treatment of patients with advanced squamous cell carcinoma of the lung (LUX-Lung 8): an open-label randomised controlled phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2015;16(8):897–907.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Liao BC, Lee JH, Lin CC, et al. Epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors for non-small-cell lung cancer patients with leptomeningeal carcinomatosis. J Thorac Oncol. 2015;10(12):1754–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Goss G, Tsai CM, Shepherd FA, et al. CNS response to osimertinib in patients with T790M-positive advanced NSCLC: pooled data from two phase II trials. Ann Oncol. 2017;29:687–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  184. Gadgeel S, Shaw AT, Barlesi F, et al. Cumulative incidence rates for CNS and non-CNS progression in two phase II studies of alectinib in ALK-positive NSCLC. Br J Cancer. 2018;118(1):38–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Ballard P, Yates JW, Yang Z, et al. Preclinical comparison of osimertinib with other EGFR-TKIs in EGFR-mutant NSCLC brain metastases models, and early evidence of clinical brain metastases activity. Clin Cancer Res. 2016;22(20):5130–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  186. Stinchcombe TE. Current treatments for surgically resectable, limited-stage, and extensive-stage small cell lung cancer. Oncologist. 2017;22(12):1510–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  187. Cheng S, Evans WK, Stys-Norman D, Shepherd FA, Lung Cancer Disease Site Group of Cancer Care Ontario’s Program in Evidence-based Care. Chemotherapy for relapsed small cell lung cancer: a systematic review and practice guideline. J Thorac Oncol. 2007;2(4):348–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. Horn L, Mansfield AS, Szczęsna A, et al. First-line atezolizumab plus chemotherapy in extensive-stage small-cell lung cancer. N Engl J Med. 2018;379:2220–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. Paz-Ares L, Dvorkin M, Chen Y, et al. Durvalumab plus platinum-etoposide versus platinum-etoposide in first-line treatment of extensive-stage small-cell lung cancer (CASPIAN): a randomised, controlled, open-label, phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2019;394(10212):1929–39.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Rudin CM, Pietanza MC, Bauer TM, et al. Rovalpituzumab tesirine, a DLL3-targeted antibody-drug conjugate, in recurrent small-cell lung cancer: a first-in-human, first-in-class, open-label, phase 1 study. Lancet Oncol. 2017;18(1):42–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Antonia SJ, López-Martin JA, Bendell J, et al. Nivolumab alone and nivolumab plus ipilimumab in recurrent small-cell lung cancer (CheckMate 032): a multicentre, open-label, phase 1/2 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2016;17(7):883–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Seymour L, Bogaerts J, Perrone A, et al. iRECIST: guidelines for response criteria for use in trials testing immunotherapeutics. Lancet Oncol. 2017;18(3):e143–52.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Oncology, University of Torino, AOU S. Luigi Gonzaga, Orbassano, Italy

    Francesco Passiglia

  2. Department of Surgical, Oncological and Oral Sciences, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy

    Valerio Gristina & Antonio Russo

  3. Department of Surgical, Oncological and Oral Sciences, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy

    Nadia Barraco

  4. Center for Thoracic Oncology, Tisch Cancer Institute, Mount Sinai System & Icahn School of Medicine, Mount Sinai, New York, USA

    Christian Rolfo

  5. Department of Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advanced Diagnostics (Bi.N.D.), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy

    Viviana Bazan

Authors
  1. Francesco Passiglia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Valerio Gristina
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Christian Rolfo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Nadia Barraco
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Viviana Bazan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Antonio Russo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Antonio Russo .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Surgical, Oncological and Oral Sciences, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy

    Antonio Russo

  2. Oncology Department, University of Antwerp, Edegem, Belgium

    Marc Peeters

  3. Department of Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advanced Diagnostics, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy

    Lorena Incorvaia

  4. Center for Thoracic Oncology, Tisch Cancer Institute, Mount Sinai System & Icahn School of Medicine, Mount Sinai, NY, USA

    Christian Rolfo

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Passiglia, F., Gristina, V., Rolfo, C., Barraco, N., Bazan, V., Russo, A. (2021). Lung Cancer. In: Russo, A., Peeters, M., Incorvaia, L., Rolfo, C. (eds) Practical Medical Oncology Textbook. UNIPA Springer Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56051-5_32

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56051-5_32

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-56050-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-56051-5

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation