Migrant Networks and Nationalist Politics—The Federation Years

Groves, Zoë R.

doi:10.1007/978-3-030-54104-0_6

Zoë R. Groves⁴

Part of the book series: Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies ((CIPCSS))

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Abstract

This chapter looks at the background to the creation of the Central African Federation and early African political movements in Nyasaland and Southern Rhodesia. It examines the escalation of political action from 1956 in the lead up the 1959 State of Emergency. The narrative ends in 1965 when Rhodesia made a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI). Middle-class Nyasa migrants played a crucial role in the formation of new African political organisations in Salisbury during the federation years (1953–1963). This chapter considers the experiences of Nyasa migrants in the context of increased social and political tensions, and in relation to the rise of African nationalism in the federation era. The chapter provides a new perspective on the history of the Central African Federation and the importance of pan-African and regional solidarities in the nationalist struggles of central southern Africa.

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Notes

1.
Officially entitled The Federation of the Rhodesias and Nyasaland but more commonly referred to as the Central African Federation.
2.
‘Secession and Independence’ became the slogan of the Nyasaland African Congress in 1954. M. W. Kanyama Chiume, Kwacha: An Autobiography (Nairobi, 1975), p. 72.
3.
See for example Michael Collins, ‘Decolonisation and the “Federal Moment”’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, 24 (2013), pp. 21–40; Ronald Hyam, ‘The Geopolitical Origins of the Central African Federation: Britain, Rhodesia and South Africa, 1948–53’, The Historical Journal, 31, 1 (1987), pp. 145–172. In contrast, one early history of federation which explores African perspectives is Robert I. Rotberg, The Rise of Nationalism in Central Africa: The Making of Malawi and Zambia, 1873–1964 (Cambridge, 1965).
4.
Collins, ‘Decolonisation and the “Federal Moment”’, p. 34.
5.
The nature of African political tradition and mass nationalism in Malawi from the mid-1950s onwards, is explored in John McCracken, ‘Democracy and Nationalism in Historical Perspective: the Case of Malawi’, African Affairs, 97, 387 (1998), pp. 231–249; Joey Power, Political Culture and Nationalism in Malawi: Building Kwacha (Rochester, NY, 2010); Kings M. Phiri, John McCracken, and Wapulumuka Mulwafu (eds.), Malawi in Crisis: The 1959/60 State of Emergency and Its Legacy (Zomba, 2013).
6.
John McCracken makes this point in his review of Peter Mackay, We Have Tomorrow: Stirrings in Africa, 1959–1967 (Norwich, 2008), see ‘The Exciting Times of a Central African Don Quixote’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 35, 2 (2009), p. 528.
7.
For a general outline of the proposals put forward by settlers from Northern and Southern Rhodesia and the colonial office, including the 1927 Hilton Young Commission, The Passfield Memorandum, 1930, and the Bledisloe Commission Report, 1939, see ‘The Idea of Amalgamation 1915–1939’, in Colin Leys and Cranford Pratt (eds.), A New Deal in Central Africa (London, 1960), pp. 1–10. For a more recent account of the imperial history of Federation, Andrew Cohen, The Politics and Economics of Decolonisation in Africa: The Failed Experiment of the Central African Federation (London, 2017).
8.
Rotberg, The Rise of Nationalism in Central Africa, pp. 110–114.
9.
MNA 60/HKB/1/1/2(a) ‘Federation of Nyasaland and Rhodesias: Views of Nyasaland Africans in Northern Rhodesia’.
10.
See Terence Ranger, Are We Not Also Men? The Samkange Family and African Politics in Zimbabwe, 1920–1964 (London, 1995), especially Chapter four, ‘Making Nationalism’, pp. 87–124.
11.
Michael West, The Rise of an African Middle Class: Colonial Zimbabwe, 1898–1965 (Bloomington, 2002), p. 150.
12.
Richard Gray, The Two Nations: Aspects of the Development of Race Relations in the Rhodesias and Nyasaland (Oxford, 1960), pp. 162–164.
13.
Ranger, ‘Thompson’s Election to Presidency’, ‘Are We Not Also Men? pp. 90–94.
14.
McCracken, Politics and Christianity, p. 303.
15.
Gray, The Two Nations, p. 174.
16.
Rotberg, The Rise of Nationalism, p. 184.
17.
Ibid.
18.
Shula Marks, ‘Southern Africa’, Judith Brown and Wm Roger Louis (eds.), The Oxford History of the British Empire, Volume IV: The Twentieth Century (Oxford, 1999), p. 560.
19.
Ranger, Are We Not Also Men? p. 98.
20.
The majority of this correspondence is found in the Samkange Archive which remains closed but was used extensively by Ranger in ‘Are We Not Also Men’.
21.
The Bantu Mirror, 9 September 1944, Quoted in Ranger, ibid., p. 94.
22.
Ranger, Are We Not Also Men? p. 101.
23.
Ibid.
24.
Quoted in Ranger, Are We Not Also Men? p. 102. Ranger quotes at length from letters to The Bantu Mirror between 1945 and 1946, Are We Not Also Men? pp. 100–102.
25.
Markku Hokkanen, Medicine, Mobility and the Empire Nyasaland Networks, 1859–1960 (Manchester, 2017), pp. 167–169.
26.
MNA 60/HKB/1/1/2(a) Letter dated 20 September 1946 from H. K. Banda to Dr Rita Hinden, Secretary for the Fabian Society Colonial Bureau. Presumably the letter refers to the 1946 Native Urban Areas Registration and Accommodation Act in Southern Rhodesia.
27.
Rotberg, The Rise of Nationalism, p. 198. Matinga attempted to persuade Dr Xuma of the South African National Congress to sponsor a Pan-African Congress but was unsuccessful.
28.
MNA PCC1/4/1, ‘Nyasaland African Congress, 1945–1952’, Report from the Third Annual Conference, 21–25 September 1946.
29.
MNA PCC1/4/1 min of the Special Meeting of the Nyasaland African Congress, Salisbury Branch, 1946.
30.
For a more detailed examination of Nyasas in South Africa, particularly Johannesburg, see Henry Dee, ‘Nyasa Leaders, Christianity and African Internationalism in 1920s Johannesburg’, South African Historical Journal, 70, 2 (2018), pp. 383–406.
31.
West, The Rise of an African Middle Class, pp. 152–153. On the rhetorical strategies of African politicians and nationalists in Southern Rhodesia before 1960, see Scarnecchia, The Urban Roots of Democracy and Political Violence, Harare and Highfield, 1940–1964 (Rochester, 2008), p. 6.
32.
MNA S15/1/7/1 Nyasaland African Congress, 1945–47, Extract from Report on Visits to Lourenço Marques, Johannesburg and Salisbury by Mr E. C. Barnes.
33.
MNA Transmittal Files: 3.3.7F/1295, Nyasaland Government Representative for Salisbury, Reports, Vol. 1.
34.
MNA Transmittal Files: 3.3.7F/1295, Nyasaland Government Representative Reports, Vol. 1.
35.
Ibid.
36.
ZNA MS841/6/4 Personal correspondence of Sir Malcolm Barrow (Minister of Home Affairs 1954–1955) Statement from the CCAP, Blantyre Synod, 1954–1957.
37.
SOAS (Special Collection Archives) PPMS Fox-Pitt, Box 5 Nyasaland African Chiefs Conference, Lilongwe, 15th and 16th November 1952.
38.
Chiume, Kwacha, p. 178.
39.
Rhodes House Library (RHL) ‘The Africa Bureau’ MSS 240/1 Letter from N.D. Kwenje to Dr Banda.
40.
Leys and Pratt offer a comprehensive and contemporary account of events leading up to and responses towards Federation in A New Deal in Central Africa.
41.
George Nyandoro (founding member of the Salisbury City Youth League in 1956) writing for Dissent—a short-lived mimeographed broadsheet started in Southern Rhodesia after the banning of Congress in 1959—later suggested that the Land Husbandry Act was the best recruiter the Southern Rhodesian Congress could have wished for, as it was met with such strong dissatisfaction from so many sections across African society. Dissent provided a critical voice of government policies, in the absence of any African political party after the banning of Congress. Dissent, No. 19, 9 June 1960.
42.
Nathan M. Shamuyarira, Crisis in Rhodesia (London, 1965), p. 15.
43.
ZNA AOH/63 (Oral Histories), Interview with Reuben Jamela, 11 January 1980.
44.
Nathan Shamuyarira, Crisis, p. 15; M. West, ‘Liquor and Libido: Joint Drinking and the Politics of Sexual Control in Colonial Zimbabwe, 1920s–1950 s’, Journal of Social History, 30, 3 (1997), pp. 645–667.
45.
The idea of ‘partnership’ and how crucial it was in ‘selling’ the federation scheme is explored in Robert I. Rotberg, ‘The Partnership Hoax: How the British Government Deprived Central Africans of their Rights’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 45, 1 (2019), pp. 89–110.
46.
Roy Welensky, Welensky’s 4000 Days: The Life and Death of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (London, 1964), p. 35.
47.
Violent outbreaks occurred in several Nyasaland districts in response to Federation. See Power, Political Culture, pp. 55–75.
48.
RHL MSS ‘Welensky Papers’, Box 239/8, Federal Intelligence and Security Bureau (FISB), Report by Mr Spicer on Nyasaland, September 1953.
49.
ZNA Oral/233 Interview with Lawrence Vambe, 1–13 June 1983.
50.
RHL, Box 238/2, FISB Affairs, Letter to the Private Secretary of the Acting PM, 8th December 1955 Mtepuka’s name appeared on a list of African leaders. Laurence Vambe and M. M. Hove also held prominent positions working for the African run press in Southern Rhodesia.
51.
Ibid. The Capricorn Africa Society was explored in Luise White, The Assassination of Herbert Chitepo: Texts and Politics in Zimbabwe (Bloomington, 2003).
52.
Jacha later became a member of the United Federal party and held a seat in the Federal Parliament. ZNA AOH/14 Aaron Jacha, 14th July 1977.
53.
Shamuyarira, Crisis, p. 20; White, The Assassination of Herbert Chitepo, p. 71. The Gule Wamkulu even had a character representing the two-faced Capricorn.
54.
Scarnecchia, The Urban Roots of Democracy, pp. 12–28.
55.
Maurice Nyagumbo, With the People (London, 1980), pp. 101–102.
56.
Many Africans working for the BSA Police were from Nyasaland, which may explain why Chisiza was suspected of subversion. RHL FISB Affairs Box 239/8 ‘Memorandum concerning Dunduzu K. Chisiza’, 1 August 1956.
57.
African Weekly, 16 May 1956.
58.
Ibid, 19 September 1956.
59.
Timothy Scarnecchia, ‘Poor Women and Nationalist Politics: Alliances and Fissures in the Formation of a Nationalist Political Movement in Salisbury, Rhodesia, 1950–6’, Journal of African History, 37, 2 (1996), p. 302.
60.
For more on the rise of the City Youth League and politics in Salisbury during the 1950s see: Brian Raftopoulos, ‘Nationalism and Labour in Salisbury 1953–1965’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 21, 1 (1995), pp. 79–94.
61.
‘The vanguardist tendencies of the Youth League and the Southern Rhodesian African National Congress followed the pattern of the Nyasaland, the South African and the Northern Rhodesian National Congresses’. Scarnecchia, ‘Poor Women and Nationalist Politics’, p. 302.
62.
ZNA Oral/228, Interview with Ignatius Takaidza Chigwendere, 24th May 1974.
63.
Whilst the central body of NAC was experiencing a quiet phase, some of the individual branches were busy building up important grass roots support in their localities. Joey Power, ‘Building Relevance: The Blantyre Congress, 1953–56’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 28, 1 (2002), pp. 45–65.
64.
The Nyasaland Times, Tuesday 27 October 1959. On Flax Musopole, see John McCracken, ‘The Ambiguities of Nationalism: Flax Musopole and the Northern Factor in Malawian Politics, c.1956–1966’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 28, 1 (2002), pp. 67–87; Owen Kalinga, ‘The General from Fort Hill’: Katoba Flax Musopole’s Role as an Anti-colonial Activist and Politician in Malawi’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 46, 2 (2020), pp. 301–317.
65.
The Defiance Campaign was organised by the African National Congress Youth League in South Africa in 1952. It was an attempt to bring about the repeal of the National Government’s unjust laws by openly defying them. Huge rallies and marches were held daily until the campaign was eventually crushed by government and police brutality. The Campaign succeeded in bringing a certain amount of international attention to the situation in South Africa, William Beinart, Twentieth Century South Africa (Oxford, 2001), pp. 148–155.
66.
Chiume, Musople and Chumia were described by colonial office intelligence as ‘the main driving force’ behind congress in the Northern Province. The National Archives (UK) CO 1015/1748 ‘Nyasaland African Congress Intelligence Reports’, Extract from Nyasaland Intelligence Report for the Quarter Ending, 31 December 1957.
67.
On Fort Hare University, see S. Morrow and K. Gxabalashe, ‘The Records of the University of Fort Hare’, History in Africa, 27 (2000), pp. 481–497.
68.
Robert Rotberg (ed.), Hero of the Nation: Chipembere of Malawi—An Autobiography (Blantyre, 2002), p. 137; Terence Ranger, Are We Not Also Men?, pp. 105–106. Southern Rhodesian Africans at Fort Hare protested in 1945 about the fact that senior teaching positions in schools would be closed to Africans.
69.
The National Archives CAB/129/89, ‘Report by the Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations on his Visit to the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in October, 1957’.
70.
RHL Welensky Papers, 239/8.
71.
RHL Box 239/8, ‘Statement of the Synod of Blantyre of the CCAP Concerning the Present State of Unrest in Nyasaland, 1957’.
72.
ZNA F120/L343/1 Security Situation Reports, December 1959—It was noted that, ‘the Nyasaland ANC in and around Salisbury succeeds in attracting large crowds who applaud the extreme statements of the speakers’.
73.
Bulawayo Files, S.O. 8 Vol. T Box 100 (Archival notes from Terence Ranger).
74.
Ibid.
75.
Ibid. Meeting in Stanley Hall, Bulawayo, 10 February 1957.
76.
Ibid. Report of the Annual Conference of NAC in Southern Rhodesia, 11 May 1958.
77.
The Nyasaland Times, 7 March 1958.
78.
Chiume, Kwacha, p. 99.
79.
The Nyasaland Times, Friday 7 March 1958.
80.
Colin Baker highlights the significance of this declaration; while the nationalists in southern Africa advocated the use of non-violent means in order to gain independence they went one step further at this conference, claiming they would not rule out the use of force in retaliation, or if peaceful means did not gain results. Colin Baker, State of Emergency: Crisis in Central Africa, Nyasaland 1959–60 (London, 1997), pp. 8–9.
81.
Chiume, Kwacha, p. 99.
82.
ZNA MS 841/32 ‘ANC Information and Reports, 1959–62’, Dr Banda’s speech at Chileka Airport in Blantyre, 28 December 1958.
83.
RHL Box 241 File 1 Letter to Commander Fox-Pitt from Dr Banda, 30 December 1958.
84.
RHL MSS Afr.S 1681 Box 240/1 In a letter from Dr Banda to Mr David Astor in January a year before he was prohibited from Southern Rhodesia, Banda wrote, ‘They [Southern Rhodesian Africans] lack the proper spirit and are used to being spoon fed by Europeans. I entirely agree with him on this. The Africans in Southern Rhodesia, even the best of them are stooges…’, Letter, 17 January 1958.
85.
The Nyasaland Times, 6 January 1959.
86.
ZNA Federal Archives F120/L343/1, ‘Security Situation Reports, 1959’.
87.
SOAS Fox-Pitt, Box 9, ‘The Africa Bureau’ Southern Rhodesia African National Congress meeting ‘in protest against the action taken by the Southern Rhodesian and Northern Rhodesian governments in banning Dr Hastings Banda…and other African leaders and in denying them even transit facilities’, 18th January 1959.
88.
RHL FISB Affairs Box 239/8, ‘Memorandum concerning Joshua Chirwa Wellington MALIFA’, 1 August 1956.
89.
Carl F. Hallencreutz, Religion and Politics Religion and Politics in Harare, 1890–1980 (Uppsala, 1999), p. 331.
90.
ZNA F120 Letter from P. W. Youens, Deputy Chief Secretary for Nyasaland to the Official Secretary to the Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia, 9 January 1959.
91.
ZNA F120 Letter from P. W. Youens, Deputy Chief Secretary for Nyasaland to the Official Secretary to the Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia, 9 January 1959.
92.
The Nyasaland Times, 16 January 1959, ‘African M.L.C. Banned in Southern Rhodesia’.
93.
The National Archives, CAB/129/98, Report of the Nyasaland Commission of Inquiry, 6 April 1959 (Hereafter—The Devlin Commission). Appendix One, Letter from Chipembere to Chiume, 2 February 1959. Munukayumbwa Sipalo was a radical member of the Zambia Congress. Rotberg, The Rise of African Nationalism, p. 291.
94.
The Nyasaland Times, 16 January 1959.
95.
These powers included the ability to stop and order assemblies and processions to disperse, and prohibited the carrying of weapons, see The Nyasaland Times, 5 December 1958.
96.
The Nyasaland Times, 10 February 1959, ‘Banda in Mlanje’. Sir Garfield Todd was Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia from 1953 to 1958.
97.
The Devlin Commission, Appendix One Letter from Chipembere to Chiume, 2 February 1959.
98.
The Devlin Commission.
99.
RHL Welensky Papers, Box 240/1.
100.
Ibid. Box 239/9 Federal PM’s meeting, 19 January 1959.
101.
Ibid.
102.
Their prediction was correct. Dr Banda exploded in reaction to the movement of troops into Nyasaland to put down unrest in the Northern region. In a letter to the Governor of Nyasaland, Banda wrote, ‘I protest in the strongest possible terms against the sending of outside troops, particularly, troops from Southern Rhodesia, to Karonga, Fort Hill and anywhere else in this country…Nowhere in the country has law and order been so broken down as to necessitate the calling in of troops from Southern Rhodesia, either federal or territorial…’ RHL Welensky Papers 239/9, 23 February 1959.
103.
RHL MSS Welensky 240/1 Letter to Roy Welensky from Government House Zomba, 18 February 1959.
104.
These figures were confirmed in the Devlin Commission Report.
105.
ZNA Oral/233 Interview with Lawrence Vambe, 1–13 June 1983.
106.
Ibid.
107.
The Nyasaland Times, 27 February 1959. The emergency powers allowed the government to detain people, prohibit gatherings of more than three, control movement of people and supplies of weapons, impose a curfew and control the publication of information about the movement or actions of the security forces.
108.
For a more detailed account of both the Southern Rhodesian and Nyasaland emergencies in 1959, see Baker, State of Emergency; The Devlin Commission Report, and the early editions of Dissent.
109.
The Devlin Commission, p. 5.
110.
Baker, State of Emergency, p. 29.
111.
Headline in The Nyasaland Times read: ‘How They Live at Khami Prison—Detainees Are Kept in Two Separate Blocks, Nyasas in One, Southern Rhodesians in the Other, They Are Not Allowed to Mix’, 24 March 1959.
112.
Mackay, We Have Tomorrow, p. 32.
113.
The Nyasaland Times, 17th April and 5 May 1959.
114.
Tsopano, No. 11, September 1960.
115.
Vera Mlangazua Chirwa, ‘The Nyasaland State of Emergency of 1959/60: My Own Eye Witness Perception’, in Kings M. Phiri, John McCracken, and Wapulumuka O. Mulwafu (eds.), Malawi in Crisis: The 1959/60 Nyasaland State of Emergency and Its Legacy (Zomba, 2012), pp. 330–331.
116.
Dissent, No. 6, 25 June 1959.
117.
Ibid.
118.
Ibid.
119.
ZNA Oral/228 Interview with Chigwendere, 24 May 1974.
120.
Tsopano, No. 6, March 1960—Letter from W. A. Mhlaba Sambo in Bulawayo, Southern Rhodesia.
121.
ZNA F120/L341, ‘Nyasaland Security Appreciation, 4 March 1959’.
122.
The Devlin Commission Report, p. 16.
123.
‘NDP in Support of Banda and MCP Victory’, Bulawayo Chronicle, 17 August 1961.
124.
Tom Hopkinson and Tim Couzens (eds.), Zimbabwe: The Search for Common Ground since 1890 (Cape Town, 1992), p. 65.
125.
‘Malawi Congress Party’, Bwalo La Nyasaland, 24 October 1961.
126.
For a first-hand account of ‘the troubles’ in Salisbury in the early 1960 s, see Mackay, We Have Tomorrow.
127.
Interview with Stephen Lungu, Chatham, Kent, November 2006. Also, Stephen Lungu with Anne Coomes, Out of the Black Shadows: The Amazing Transformation of Stephen Lungu (London, 2001).
128.
Dissent, No. 7, 16 July 1959.
129.
Bill Paton, Labour Export Policy in the Development of Southern Africa (Harare, 1995), p. 124.
130.
Interview with Ibrahim, Dedza, 2008.
131.
ZNA F128/L15 ‘Race Affairs, African Opinion, 1961–63’, Commentary by J. D. Kenan, Advisor to the Federal Government on Race Affairs—African Unemployment, 30 May 1962.
132.
Interview with Stephen Lungu, Chatham, Kent, November 2006.
133.
Ibid.
134.
Ibid.
135.
Ibid.
136.
Ibid.
137.
Interview with Mr Binga, CCAP, Harare, August 2009.
138.
John Pape, ‘Chimurenga in the Kia: Domestic Workers in the Liberation Struggle in Zimbabwe’, Sites of Struggle (Harare, 1999), p. 263.
139.
MNA 14239 (Secretariat Dept.) 2/27/6F/2357 Nyasaland Government Representative for Salisbury, Reports, Vol. 2, 1959.
140.
RHL Welensky Papers, FISB Affairs, Box 238/3.
141.
Tsopano, No. 5, February 1960, Commentary by Mlonda.
142.
Andrew C. Ross, Colonialism to Cabinet Crisis: A Political History of Malawi (Zomba, 2009), p. 198.
143.
Peter Mackay, We Have Tomorrow, pp. 38–43.
144.
‘Whitehead threatens to Ban Nyasas in S.R’. The Daily News, 18 July 1962.
145.
Tsopano, No. 6, March 1960.
146.
‘Tete a Tete in Zomba’, The Chronicle, 28 March 1962.
147.
Paton, Labour Export Policy, p. 45. These figures are for recruited labour and did not include machona or those who had independently migrated without passes and official documentation.
148.
On the building of the Kariba Damn see Julia Tischler, Light and Power for a Multiracial Nation: The Kariba Damn Scheme in the Central African Federation (New York, 2013).
149.
Tsopano, No. 6 March 1960.
150.
Paton, Labour Export Policy, p. 47.
151.
ZNA F236/CX29/2/2 African Labour Policy, Vol. 3, ‘Nyasaland and RNLSC (Mthandizi), 7 September 1961. The Nyasaland Government had decided not to renew RNLSC permits at the end of the year. The announcement was made by Harry Bwanausi, Minister of Labour and Social Development in the new government.
152.
Raftopoulos, ‘Nationalism and Labour in Salisbury, 1953–1965’, Sites of Struggle, p. 144.
153.
The position of non-indigenous migrants during the period of the liberation struggle, from 1965 to 1980 and after independence is discussed in Chapter 7.
154.
Interview with Elube, Ntcheu District, February 2008. Second name unknown.
155.
Ibid.
156.
Tsopano, No. 4, January 1960.
157.
Ibid.
158.
‘Southern Rhodesia African National Congress: Presidential Report on Progress and Expansion During 1957–8. First Annual Delegates Conference, 12–14 September 1958’, published in Christopher Nyangoni and Gideon Nyandoro (eds.), Zimbabwe Independence Movements. Select Documents (London, 1979), p. 17.
159.
The Devlin Commission, p. 22.
160.
RHL MSS Africa Bureau Box 240.
161.
Terence Ranger and John Reed in Dissent, No. 19, 9 June 1960.
162.
Ibid, p. 74.
163.
Hopkinson and Couzens (eds.), Zimbabwe: The Search, p. 69.

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Groves, Z.R. (2020). Migrant Networks and Nationalist Politics—The Federation Years. In: Malawian Migration to Zimbabwe, 1900–1965. Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54104-0_6

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