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The Trajectory of Liberation: Insurgencies from Portuguese Colonialism and Their Contribution to Pan-Africanism and Solidarism Within an Emerging African International Society

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Visions of African Unity

Part of the book series: African Histories and Modernities ((AHAM))

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Abstract

The chapter will focus on three concepts: Pan-Africanism, solidarism, and nationalism since the outbreak of insurgency up to the end of the Cold War in order to understand: (a) how the Portuguese-speaking national liberation movements leaderships’ trajectories contributed to the evolution of an African international society; (b) what role, if any, did anti-colonialism and later anti-apartheid play in the consolidation of solidarism within that regional international society?; (c) what influence, if any, did external actors play in the tension between pluralism and solidarism in an African international society? The paper will argue that the trajectory of the liberation insurgencies contributed to highlighting the tensions between pluralism and solidarism within that regional international society.

The author wishes to acknowledge the support of the Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) for the final revision of the present chapter through the Instituto Português de Relações Internacionais – Universidade NOVA de Lisboa UIDB/04627/2020.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Oscar Monteiro, De Todos Se Faz Um País (only Maputo Associação dos Escritores Moçambicanos, 2012), 168.

  2. 2.

    Branwen Gruffydd Jones, “Anti-Racism and Emancipation in the Thought of Cabral, Neto, Mondlane and Machel,” in International Relations and Non-Western Thought: Imperialism, Colonialism and Investigations of Global Modernity. ed. Robbie Shilliam (London: Routledge), 48.

  3. 3.

    Monteiro, De Todos Se Faz Um País, 168.

  4. 4.

    Christian Reus-Smitt, “The Constructivist Challenge after September 11,” in International Society and Its Critic, ed. Alex Bellamy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 5.

  5. 5.

    Barry Buzan and Laust Schouenborg, eds., Global International Society: A New Framework for Analysiss (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 90.

  6. 6.

    Frederick Cooper, “Networks, Moral Discourse and History,” in Intervention and Transnationalism in Africa: Global-Local Networks of Power, ed. Thomas Callaghy, Ronald Kassimir and Robert Latham (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 45–6.

  7. 7.

    Barry Buzan, An Introduction to the English School of International Relations: The Societal Approach (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2014), 57.

  8. 8.

    Marco Vieira, “Rising States and Distributive Justice: Reforming International Order in the Twenty-First Century,” Global Society 26, no. 3 (2012): 17–8.

  9. 9.

    Buzan and Schouenborg, Global International Society, 81.

  10. 10.

    Buzan and Schouenborg, Global International Society, 80.

  11. 11.

    Buzan, An Introduction to the English School of International Relations, 59.

  12. 12.

    Elaine I. S. Yan, “Understanding African International Society: An English School Approach” (PhD diss., Aberystwyth University, 2013), 89–92.

  13. 13.

    James Mayall, World Politics: Progress and Its Limits (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2000), 14.

  14. 14.

    Buzan, An Introduction to the English School of International Relations 179.

  15. 15.

    Yan, “Understanding African International Society,” 8.

  16. 16.

    Yan, “Understanding African International Society,” 9.

  17. 17.

    EYan, “Understanding African International Society,” 126.

  18. 18.

    EYan, “Understanding African International Society,” 125.

  19. 19.

    Monteiro, De Todos Se Faz Um País, 126.

  20. 20.

    Mayall, World Politics, 14.

  21. 21.

    Julião Soares Sousa, Amílcar Cabral (1924–1973) Vida E Morte De Um Revolucionário Africano (Lisboa: Vega, 2012), 357–8.

  22. 22.

    In this chapter abbreviations are of the original language, Portuguese; but the names of the movements and political parties are translated into English.

  23. 23.

    Monteiro, De Todos Se Faz Um País, 127.

  24. 24.

    African Liberation Committee (ALC).

  25. 25.

    Gilbert Khadiagala, “Pan-Africanism and Regional Integration,” in Routledge Handbook of African Politics, eds. Nic Cheeseman, David Anderson and Andrea Scheibler (Abingdon: Routledge, 2013), 375–89.

  26. 26.

    Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni, “Pan-Africanism and the International System,” in Handbook of Africa’s International Relations, ed. Tim Murithi (London: Routledge, 2014), 25.

  27. 27.

    Hakim Adi, Pan-Africanism: A History (London: Bloomsbury Academy, 2018), 2.

  28. 28.

    Robbie Shilliam, ed., International Relations and Non-Western Thought: Imperialism, Colonialism and Investigations of Global Modernity (London: Routledge, 2011), 6.

  29. 29.

    Mestiço and assimilado were educated Angolans with a place in colonial society. The low level of female immigration to Angola led to a mestiço class of educated Africans. Fernando Andresen Guimarães, The Origins of the Angolan Civil War: Foreign Intervention and Domestic Political Conflict (London: Macmillan Press, 2001), 37.

  30. 30.

    Pedro Borges Graça, O Projeto De Eduardo Mondlane (Lisboa: Instituto Português da Conjuntura Estratégica, 2000), 274.

  31. 31.

    Guimarães, The Origins of the Angolan Civil War, 67.

  32. 32.

    Marco Mondaini and Colin Darch, Independence and Revolution in Portuguese-Speaking Africa (Cape Town: HSRC Press, 2019), 15.

  33. 33.

    Alex de Waal, “Genealogies of Transnational Activism” in AAdvocacy in Conflict: Critical Perspectives on Transnational Activism, ed. Alex de Waal (London: Zed Books, 2015), 18–44.

  34. 34.

    Daniel Kaiser, “Makers of Bonds and ‘Ties’: Transnational Socialisation and National Liberation in Mozambique,” Journal of Southern African Studies 43, no. 1 (2017): 29–48.

  35. 35.

    John Fobanjong, “Articulating Cabral’s Regionalist and Pan-Africanist Visions,” African Identities 4, no. 1 (2006): 113; Yan, “Understanding African International Society,” 125.

  36. 36.

    Gruffydd Jones, “Anti-Racism and Emancipation in the Thought of Cabral, Neto, Mondlane and Machel,” 57.

  37. 37.

    Gruffydd Jones, “Anti-Racism and Emancipation in the Thought of Cabral, Neto, Mondlane and Machel,” 58.

  38. 38.

    Kaiser, “Makers of Bonds and Ties,” 45.

  39. 39.

    Guimarães, The Origins of the Angolan Civil War.

  40. 40.

    Leonardo Tuyenikumwe Pedro, “Angola No Contexto Da SADC – Cooperação No Quadro Da Defesa Angola/Namíbia (1990–2015)” (PhD diss., ISCTE-Instituto Universitário de Lisboa, 2019).

  41. 41.

    Jocelyn Alexander, JoAnn McGregor and Blessing-Miles Tendi, “The Transnational Histories of Southern African Liberation Movements: An Introduction,” Journal of Southern African Studies 43, no. 1 (2017): 8.

  42. 42.

    Guimarães, The Origins of the Angolan Civil War, 82.

  43. 43.

    Guimarães, The Origins of the Angolan Civil War, 61.

  44. 44.

    Julião Soares Sousa, “MPLA: Da Fundação Ao Reconhecimento Por Parte Da OUA (1960–1968),” Latitudes, Cahiers Lusophones 28 (2006): 13–16.

  45. 45.

    Guimarães, The Origins of the Angolan Civil War,, 66–71.

  46. 46.

    See the previous section.

  47. 47.

    Angola Combatente.

  48. 48.

    Voz de Angola Livre.

  49. 49.

    Marissa J. Moorman, “Guerrilla Broadcasters and the Unnerved Colonial State in Angola (1961–74),” Journal of African History, 59, no. 2 (2018): 252.

  50. 50.

    Cláudia Castelo and Miguel Bandeira Jerónimo, eds., Casa Dos Estudantes Do Império: Dinâmicas Coloniais, Conexões Transnacionais (Lisboa: Edições 70, 2017).

  51. 51.

    Monteiro, De Todos Se Faz Um País, 127.

  52. 52.

    Interview, Gerhard Seibert, January 2019.

  53. 53.

    Matteo Grilli, “Nkrumah’s Ghana and the Armed Struggle in Southern Africa (1961–1966),” South African Historical Journal 70, no. 1 (2018): 70; Corrado Tornimbeni, “Nationalism and Internationalism in the Liberation Struggle in Mozambique: The Role of Frelimo’s Solidarity Network in Italy,” South African Historical Journal, 70, no. 1 (2018): 5.

  54. 54.

    Marco Mondaini and Colin Darch, Independence and Revolution in Portuguese-Speaking Africa, 14.

  55. 55.

    Alexander, McGregor and Tendi, “The Transnational Histories of Southern African Liberation Movements,” 8.

  56. 56.

    Monteiro, De Todos Se Faz Um País, 146–7.

  57. 57.

    Monteiro, De Todos Se Faz Um País, 148; (Maputo, Mozambique: Associação dos Escritores Moçambicanos 2012), 148. Nuno Severiano Teixeira, “Parte III (1820–2010),” In História militar de Portugal, eds., Nuno Severiano Teixeira, Francisco Contente Domingues and João Gouveia Monteiro (Lisboa: Esfera dos Livros, 2017), 533.

  58. 58.

    Monteiro, De Todos Se Faz Um País, 149-50.

  59. 59.

    Sousa, “MPLA,” 16.

  60. 60.

    Monteiro, De Todos Se Faz Um País, 197.

  61. 61.

    Monteiro, De Todos Se Faz Um País, 197.

  62. 62.

    Pedro, “Angola No Contexto Da SADC,” 37–8.

  63. 63.

    Pedro, “Angola No Contexto Da SADC,” 37–8.

  64. 64.

    Monteiro, De Todos Se Faz Um País, 198.

  65. 65.

    Interview, Gerhard Seibert, January 2019.

  66. 66.

    Marco Mondaini and Colin Darch, Independence and Revolution in Portuguese-Speaking Africa, 55.

  67. 67.

    Yussuf Adam, “Trick or Treat: The Relationship between Destabilisation, Aid and Government Development Policies in Mozambique 1975–1990” (PhD diss., Roskilde University, 1996).

  68. 68.

    Monteiro, De Todos Se Faz Um País, 156.

  69. 69.

    Elizabeth Schmidt, Foreign Intervention in Africa: From the Cold War to the War on Terror (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 84; Tornimbeni, “Nationalism and Internationalism in the Liberation Struggle in Mozambique,” 14.

  70. 70.

    Pinto cited Teixeira, “Parte III (1820–2010),” 529.

  71. 71.

    Monteiro, De Todos Se Faz Um País, 141.

  72. 72.

    Tornimbeni, “Nationalism and Internationalism in the Liberation Struggle in Mozambique,” 1–21.

  73. 73.

    Christopher Clapham, Africa and the International System: The Politics of State Survival (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 37.

  74. 74.

    Clapham, Africa and the International System, 37.

  75. 75.

    Marco Mondaini and Colin Darch, Independence and Revolution in Portuguese-Speaking Africa, 53.

  76. 76.

    Robert H. Jackson, Quasi-States: Sovereignty, International Relations, and the Third World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).

  77. 77.

    Christopher Clapham, “Degrees of Statehood,” Review of International Studies 24, no. 2 (1998): 143–57.

  78. 78.

    Patrick Chabal, Power in Africa: An Essay in Political Interpretation (London: Macmillan, 1992).

  79. 79.

    The Washington Consensus was based on a development model that required a contraction of debt based on the reduction of the expenses of the state in societies where the services provided by the state were already very reduced.

  80. 80.

    Maria Nzomo, “The Foreign Policy of Tanzania: From Cold War to Post-Cold War,” in African Foreign Policies, ed. Stephen Wright (Oxford: Westview Press, 1999), 186.

  81. 81.

    Gruffydd Jones, “Anti-Racism and Emancipation in the Thought of Cabral, Neto, Mondlane and Machel,” 48.

  82. 82.

    Buzan, An Introduction to the English School of International Relations, 156.

  83. 83.

    Stephen Wright, ed., African Foreign Policies (Oxford: Westview Press, 1999), 7.

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  1. Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal

    Alexandra M. Dias

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  1. International Studies Group, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa

    Matteo Grilli

  2. Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands

    Frank Gerits

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Dias, A.M. (2020). The Trajectory of Liberation: Insurgencies from Portuguese Colonialism and Their Contribution to Pan-Africanism and Solidarism Within an Emerging African International Society. In: Grilli, M., Gerits, F. (eds) Visions of African Unity. African Histories and Modernities. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52911-6_8

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