Abstract
Visual observations of the state of the weather have been made for hundreds and thousands of years. Observers have always been impressed by natural phenomena. Since the beginning of measurements nearly 500 years ago, visual observations have became a relevant part of meteorological observations – even when they only represent empirical relationships. Although electronic sensors and automatization now significantly reduce the importance of visual observations made by direct measurements or the combination of measurements, some observations are still in use and are reported in this chapter. These include the Beaufort wind force scale, the cloud classification scheme, and the atmospheric visibility observation. These observations remain relevant because they cannot be easily replaced, as in the case of cloud classification, or they provide a fast overview of the meteorological situation in the absence of measurements.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Aristotle: Meteorology (Clarendon Press, Oxford 2017), translated by E.W. Webster, first published 350 BCE
WMO: Guide to Instruments and Methods of Observation, WMO-No. 8, Volume I - Measurement of Meteorological Variables. (World Meteorological Organization, Geneva 2018)
WMO: Manual of Codes (World Meteorological Organization, Geneva 2017), WMO-No. 306
H.-G. Körber: Vom Wetteraberglauben zur Wetterforschung: Aus Geschichte und Kulturgeschichte der Meteorologie (Edition Leipzig, Leipzig 1987)
R. Hooke: A method for making a history of the weather. In: The History of the Royal Society of London, for the Improving of Natural Knowledge, ed. by T. Sprat (T. R. for 7 Martyn at the Bell, London 1667) pp. 173–179
J.B. Lamarck: Sur la forme des nuages, Annuaire Meteorol. Repub. Fr. 3, 149–164 (1802)
L. Howard: XVIII. On the modifications of clouds, and on the principles of their production, suspension, and destruction; being the substance of an essay read before the Askesian Society in the session 1802–3, Philos. Mag. Ser. 1 16(62), 97–107 (1803)
L. Howard: LXIV. On the modifications of clouds, and on the principles of their production, suspension, and destruction; being the substance of an essay read before the Askesian Society in the session 1802–3, Philos. Mag. Ser. 1 16(64), 344–357 (1803)
L. Howard: I. On the modifications of clouds, and on the principles of their production, suspension, and destruction; being the substance of an essay read before the Askesian Society in the session 1802–3, Philos. Mag. Ser. 1 17(65), 5–11 (1803)
K.H. Bernhardt: Johann Wolfgang v. Goethes Beziehungen zu Luke Howard und sein Wirken auf dem Gebiet der Meteorologie, Hist. Meteorol. 1, 28–40 (2004)
L.F. Kämtz: Vorlesungen über Meteorologie (Gebauersche Buchhandlung, Halle 1840)
E. Renou: Instructions météorologiques, Annuaire Soc. Meteorol. Fr. 3, 142–146 (1855)
P. Weilbach: Formes des nuages dans l'Europe septentrionale, Ann. Bur. Cent. Meteorol. Fr. B 1, 11–40 (1880)
H. Völter: Wolkenstudien – Cloud Studies – Études Des Nuages (Spector Books, Leipzig 2013)
A. Riggenbach: On a method of photographing cirrus clouds, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 15, 16–17 (1889)
R. Abercromby: Suggestions for an international nomenclature of clouds, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 13, 154–166 (1887)
H.H. Hildebrandsson: Remarks concerning the nomenclature of clouds for ordinary use, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 13, 148–154 (1887)
H.H. Hildebrandsson, A. Riggenbach, L.P. Teissenrenc de Bort: International Cloud-Atlas (Gauthier-Villars et Fils, Paris 1896), in French, English, and German
S. Huler: Defining the Wind (Crown Publishers, New York 2004)
F. Beaufort: Diary of Admiral Beaufort (Met Office, Exeter 1790–1857)
A. Blackadar: Using your computer, the Beaufort wind scale, Weatherwise 39, 278–280 (1986)
H. Crutcher: Wind, numbers, and Beaufort, Weatherwise 28, 260–271 (1975)
Societas Meteorologica Palatina (Ed.): Ephemerides Societatis Meteorologicae Palatinae. Observationes Anni 1789 (Societas Meteorologica Palatina, Mannheim 1793)
O.M. Ashford, S. Gupta, P.J. Meade, H. Taba, G. Weiss (Eds.): Forty Years of Progress and Achievement (World Meteorological Organization, Geneva 1990), WMO-No. 721
VDI 3786 Part 9: Environmental Meteorology – Meteorological Measurements – Visual Weather Observations (Beuth, Berlin 2021)
WMO: International Cloud Atlas: Manual on the Observation of Clouds and Other Meteors (World Meteorological Organization, Geneva 2017), WMO-No. 407
B. Mühr, W. Berberich: Der Wolkenatlas und ein Ausflug in die Astronomie (Kunstschätzeverlag, Gerchsheim 2008)
W. Kresse, D.M. Danko (Eds.): Springer Handbook of Geographic Information, 2nd edn. (Springer Nature, Switzerland 2021)
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge Bernhard Mühr for his helpful comments.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Foken, T., Rülke, R. (2021). Visual Observations. In: Foken, T. (eds) Springer Handbook of Atmospheric Measurements. Springer Handbooks. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52171-4_22
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52171-4_22
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-52170-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-52171-4
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)