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Expatriate Intrigue

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The Travels of Robert Lyall, 1789–1831

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Abstract

In asserting his status as British Resident Agent, Lyall claimed that all British subjects in Madagascar fell under his authority. This led some British residents in Antananarivo to call upon Lyall to settle disputes. As most of these concerned the Merina court, which refused to recognise his status, Lyall’s attempts to intervene led to an increasingly strained relationship between him and the court. Moreover, his attempts to establish control over the London Missionary Society (LMS) agents in Madagascar, while accepted by English missionary Joseph John Freeman (1794–1851), were rebuffed by Welsh missionaries Jones and Griffiths. This led Lyall, backed by Freeman, to accuse the two Welshmen of being traitors to the English imperial cause. Given the close bonds between Jones and Griffiths and members of the Merina court, including Ranavalona, Lyall’s attacks upon them placed added pressure on an already strained relationship with the Merina crown.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Jones to Le Brun, Tananarivou, 26 Jun 1827, MIL Bx.2 F.4 J.B., and Thomas Kelsey to [LMS], Grand River, Mauritius, 27 Oct 1827 and Griffiths to LMS directors, Antananarivo, 6 Jan 1832, MIL Bx.4 F.2 J.A.—SOAS/CWM.

  2. 2.

    Raombana, “Histoires”, 7, AAM.

  3. 3.

    Lyall to Colville, Tananarivou, 9 Dec 1828 in Lyall, Journal (1828), CO 167/116, NAK.

  4. 4.

    Lyall to Colville, Tananarivou, 9 Dec 1828 in Lyall, Journal (1828), CO 167/116, NAK.

  5. 5.

    Lyall to Colville, Tananarivou 9 Jan 1829, in Lyall, Journal (1829), CO 167/116, NAK.

  6. 6.

    Alvin Thompson, “The role of firearms and the development of military techniques in Merina warfare c.1785–1828” Revue française d’histoire d’outre-mer 61.224 (1974), 427; Charles Guillain, Documents sur l’Histoire, La Géographie et le Commerce de la Partie Occidentale de Madagascar (Paris: Imprimerie Royale, 1845), 56–7; Gwyn Campbell, David Griffiths and the Missionary ‘History of Madagascar’ (Leiden: Brill, 2012), 623.

  7. 7.

    James Sibree, Madagascar and its People. Notes of Four Years’ Residence with a Sketch of the History, position, and Prospects of Mission Work amongst the Malagasy (London: Religious Tract Society, 1870), 314.

  8. 8.

    Campbell, David Griffiths, 804–5. Brady was described in the mid-1820s as “a man of 30 years of age, small but well-proportioned; his complexion is fairer than that of the Malays. His physiognomy is agreeable, his eyes speak of spirit, and he is extraordinary vivacious”—André Coppalle, “Voyage dans l’intérieur de Madagascar et à la capitale du roi Radame pendant les années 1825 et 1826”, 31—http://www.bextes.org/coppalle.pdf (accessed 15/10/07).

  9. 9.

    Lyall to James Smith, Acting Chief Sec to Govt, Port Louis, 24 Mar 1831, RA 438, NAM.

  10. 10.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 30 Aug 1828, CO 167/116, NAK. In fact, Andriamihaja replaced Brady as army chief, Coroller being appointed to the governorship of Tamatave—Campbell, David Griffiths, 696, 805.

  11. 11.

    François Callet (ed.), Histoire des Rois (Tananarive: Editions de la Librairie de Madagascar, 1974), 1128; Raombana, “Annales”, 177, 356, AAM.

  12. 12.

    See, for example, Jeffreys to Hankey, Ambatomanga, 24 May 1824, MIL Bx.2 F.1 J.A., SOAS/CWM.

  13. 13.

    Colville to Lyall, Govt. House, Mauritius, 27 Sep 1828, CO 167/101, NAK.

  14. 14.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 30 Aug 1828, CO 167/116, NAK; see also Lyall to James Smith, Acting Chief Sec to Govt, Port Louis, 24 Mar 1831, RA 438, NAM.

  15. 15.

    Campbell, David Griffiths, 96; Johns, Freeman and Canham to Ellis, Antananarivo, 23 Mar 1834, MIL Bx.5 F.1 J.B., SOAS/CWM.

  16. 16.

    Lyall to Colville, Tananarivo, 30 Aug 1828, in Lyall, Journal (1828), CO 167/116, NAK.

  17. 17.

    James Cameron, Recollections of Mission Life in Madagascar during the early days of the LMS Mission (Antananarivo: Abraham Kingdon, 1874), 25; see also James Sibree, Fifty Years in Madagascar. Personal Experiences of Mission Life and Work (London; George Allen and Unwin, 1924), 24–5; William Ellis, History of Madagascar (London, Fisher, Son, & Co. [1838]), vol. 1, 316–9.

  18. 18.

    Protestation de L. Gros adressé à Mr. Rt. Lyall, Agent Résident Britannique près la Cour Madégasse, Tananarivou, 12 Sep 1828, HB 19, NAM; Agreement between Radama and Gros, Tananarivou, 29 Aug 1825, HB 19, NAM; Freeman to Hankey, Tananarive, 28 Feb 1829, Bx.3 F.1 J.1, MIL, SOAS/CWM; Coppalle, “Voyage dans l’interieur de Madagascar”, 28, 48; Cameron, Recollections of Mission Life, 25; Alfred & Guillaume Grandidier, Histoire physique, naturelle et politique de Madagascar 4.1 (Paris: Hachette, 1908), 537, fn. 1.

  19. 19.

    Protestation de L. Gros adressé à Mr. Rt. Lyall.

  20. 20.

    In Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 15 Sep 1828, CO 167/116, NAK.

  21. 21.

    Lyall to Colville, Tananarivou 9 Dec 1828, in Lyall, Journal (1828), CO 167/116, NAK.

  22. 22.

    It was initially called the “Missionary Society” but soon became currently known as the “London Missionary Society” which was adopted as its second title at its General Meeting on 14 May 1818—Report of the Directors to the Twenty Fourth General Meeting of the Missionary Society, usually called the London Missionary Society, on Thursday, May 14, 1818 (London: Williams & Co., 1818), 50.

  23. 23.

    Chester Terpetra, “David Bogue, D.D., 1750–1825” PhD, University of Edinburgh (1959), 106–7.

  24. 24.

    William Bogue, “Memoir on a Mission to Madagascar written by Capt. Byrn”, General Meeting, Castle & Falcon, 13 May 1796, LMS Board Meetings, SOAS/CWM; James T. Hardyman, “The London Missionary Society and Madagascar: 1795–1818 – Part I: 1795–1811”, Omaly sy Anio 7–8 (1978), 48–9; Olinthus Gregory, J. Handfield and John Dyer (eds.), Memoirs of the life of the late Major-General Andrew Burn of the Royal Marines: collected from his journals, with copious extracts from his principal works on religious subjects 2 vols (London: W. Winchester and Son, 1815); Richard Lovett, The History of the London Missionary Society 1795–1895 vol. 1 (London: Henry Frowde, 1899), 674.

  25. 25.

    [Meeting of Directors], St. Pauls Coffee House, 30 Sep 1799, LMS Board Meetings, SOAS/CWM; Vanderkemp to LMS, Bethelsdorp, 30 Aug 1808, in Evangelical Magazine (Mar 1809), 127; Van Der Kemp to LMS directors, Bethelsdorp, 8 Jun 1810, in Transactions of the Missionary Society, vol. 3. 1805–12 (London, 1813), 299; Robert H. W. Shepherd, Lovedale, South Africa; the Story of a Century, l841-l94l (Cape Town: Lovedale Press, 1941), 3.

  26. 26.

    Capt. Christopher Wilson to Maj. Gen. Warde, Tamatave, 27 Feb 1811, HB 25, NAM.

  27. 27.

    Van Der Kemp to LMS directors, Cape Town, 26 Jul 1811 in Meeting of Directors, [Old Swan Stairs], 18 Nov 1811, LMS Board Minutes, SOAS/CWM.

  28. 28.

    Van Der Kemp to LMS directors, Cape Town, 3 Oct 1811 in Meeting of Directors, [Old Swan Stairs], 27 January 1812, LMS Board Minutes, SOAS/CWM; Van Der Kemp to LMS, [South Africa] 31 Oct 1811, in Evangelical Magazine (Mar 1812), 11.

  29. 29.

    Farquhar to Earl Bathurst, Port Louis, 12 Sep, 1816, in Ellis, History of Madagascar vol. 1, 155–6; Chazal. [1815] “Réflexions . . . sur Madagascar et autres mémoires”, 30–32, BL Add.18135; idem, “Notes” (1816), BL Add.18135; Farquhar, “Instructions to Cochet”, Port Louis, 23 May 1813, and idem, ‘Instructions pour M. Charenoux’, 4 avril 1816—in G.S. Chapus (ed.), “Nouveaux documents sur l’époque de Radama I et Ranavalona I”, 325, AAM; Chardenoux. 1816. “Journal du voyage fait dans l’intérieure.” BL Add.18129; Le Sage. 1816. “Mission to Madagascar” (1816), 121–2, CO 167/34, NAK; Raombana, “Histoires”, 81, 86–8; Ellis, History of Madagascar vol. 1, 217–8 and vol. 2, 158–65.

  30. 30.

    Emma Corsbie Hardcastle (ed.), Memoir of Joseph Hardcastle, Esq., First Treasurer of the London Missionary Society. A Record of the Past for his Descendants (London: Alex Macintosh, 1860), 124; see also “Biographical Sketches. Dr. John Theodosius Vanderkemp” Evangelical Magazine and Missionary Chronicle (Jun 1836), 81–2.

  31. 31.

    John Campbell, Travels in South Africa undertaken at the request of the Missionary Society (London: Black and Parry, 1815), 18.

  32. 32.

    Report of the Directors to the Twenty First General Meeting of the Missionary Society, on Thursday, May 11, 1815 (London: J. Dennett, 1815), 6, 26: Report of the Directors to the Twenty Second General Meeting of the Missionary Society, on Thursday, May 10, 1816 (London: S. McDowall, 1816), 34.

  33. 33.

    Meeting of Directors, 28 Oct 1816 and 13 Jan 1817, LMS Board Minutes, SOAS/CWM.

  34. 34.

    Report of the Directors to the Twenty-third General Meeting of the Missionary Society, in London, on Thursday, May 15, 1817 (London: Williams & Co., 1817), 41; see also Meeting of Directors, 14 Oct 1816, LMS Board Minutes, SOAS/CWM. In May 1818, the LMS directors emphasised further: “Three places, Fort Bourbon, St. Luce, and Tamataff, have been occupied by the English”—Report of the Directors to the Twenty Fourth General Meeting of the Missionary Society, usually called the London Missionary Society, on Thursday, May 14, 1818 (London: Williams & Co., 1818), 23.

  35. 35.

    Bathurst to Farquhar, London, 18 Oct 1816, in Samuel Pasfield Oliver, Madagascar. An Historical and Descriptive Account of the Island and its Former Dependencies vol. 1 (London: Macmillan, 1886), 138.

  36. 36.

    Thomas and Mary Bevan [to parents], Falmouth, 4 Mawrth 1818, ms. 11646B, Archives of the National Library of Wales; see also Meeting of Directors, Mon 22 Dec 1817; and 20 Apr 1818, LMS Board Minutes, SOAS/CWM; Report of the Directors to the Twenty Fifth General Meeting of the Missionary Society, usually called the London Missionary Society, on Thursday, May 13, 1819 (London: F. Westley, 1819), 84; Evan Lewis Evans, “Bevan, Thomas” Welsh Biography Online, http://yba.llgc.org.uk/en/s-BEVA-THO-1796.html (accessed 13/12/07).

  37. 37.

    Jones, quoted in the Manchester Times and Gazette (2 Jun 1832).

  38. 38.

    Report of the Directors to the Twenty Fifth General Meeting of the Missionary Society, 84.

  39. 39.

    David Jones, “letter”, Madagascar 17 Apr 1819, in “David Jones. Copies of Letters 1818–39”, Madagascar Odds Bx.4, SOAS/CWM; Report of the Directors to the Twenty Fifth General Meeting of the Missionary Society, 87; Oliver, Madagascar, vol. 1, 31–2; W.J. Townsend, Madagascar: its Missionaries and Martyrs (New York: F.H. Revell, [1880]), 28–9.

  40. 40.

    “Radama King of Madagascar to the Missionary Society usually called the London Missionary Society”, CO 167/158, NAK.

  41. 41.

    David Jones to Miss Jane Darby, Gosport, Tananarivoo 14 Mar 1822, in “David Jones. Copies of Letters 1818–39” Madagascar Odds Bx.4, SOAS/CWM; “Madagascar”, Missionary Register (1822), 35.

  42. 42.

    Meeting of Directors, 27 Sep 1819 and 8 Nov 1819, LMS Board Minutes, SOAS/CWM; Campbell, David Griffiths.

  43. 43.

    D.R. Jones, Arwyr y Groes (Llundain: Cymdeithas Genhadol, 1919), 16; Ellis, History of Madagascar vol. 2, 204–16; Hastie to Griffiths, Port Louis, 18 Feb 1821, 19157E, no. 1, Archives of the National Library of Wales; D. Jones, “A Journal to Madagascar in 1820” and D. Griffiths, “Journal” (1821), in “Madagascar Journals: Madagascar and Mauritius” I (1816–24), Folders I, A and D, SOAS/CWM; Farquhar, “Instructions” to Le Sage (1816), Archives Port Louis, F.7, in Chapus (ed.), “Nouveau documents”; Quarterly Chronicle of the LMS (1821–24), xix; Lovett, History of the London Missionary Society vol. 1, 675–7; Rabary, y Daty Malaza. Na Ny Dian’ i Jesosy Teto Madagaskara (Tananarive: LMS, 1930), vol. 1 (Tananarive, 1930), 5–15.

  44. 44.

    Rabary, Ny Daty Malaza, vol. 1, 23.

  45. 45.

    Missionary Register (1822), 18; Ellis, History of Madagascar vol. 2, 269–70.

  46. 46.

    Extracts from David Jones’ Diary (1820), in Thomas Smith, The History and Origin of the Missionary Societies: Containing Faithful Accounts of the Voyages, Travels, Labours, and Successes of the Various Missionaries who have been sent out, for the Purpose of Evangelizing the Heathen, and other Unenlightened Nations, in different parts of the Globe / Compiled and Arranged from the Authentic Documents vol. 2 (London: Thomas Kelly and Richard Evans, 1825), 370.

  47. 47.

    See, for example, extracts from Jones’ Journal (1820) in Smith, history and origin of the missionary societies, 376.

  48. 48.

    Hastie, “Report on the school superintended by the missionaries at Tananarive” (19 Apr 1824), CO.167/78 II, NAK; see also T. Gwyn Thomas, David Griffiths, Madagascar (Llundain: Cymdeithas Genhadol Llundain, 1920), 17.

  49. 49.

    Griffiths to Le Brun, [Antananarivo] 3 Sep 1824, in Lovett, History of the London Missionary Society, vol. 2, 678; Baker to Arundel, Tananarivo, 5 Apr 1831, MIL Bx.4 F.1 J.A., SOAS/CWM; William Ellis, The Martyr Church: A Narrative of the Introduction, Progress, and Triumph of Christianity in Madagascar; with notices of personal intercourse and travel in that island (London: John Snow, 1870), 45.

  50. 50.

    Campbell, David Griffiths, 42.

  51. 51.

    For example, for Griffiths see, LMS Board Minutes, 15 Nov 1819, SOAS/CWM.

  52. 52.

    Jeffreys to Directors, 26 May 1823, Bx.1 F.5 J.B., MIL, SOAS/CWM.

  53. 53.

    Lindley Murray, English Grammar, adapted to the Different Classes of Learners. With an Appendix, containing Rules and Observations for Promoting Perspicuity in Speaking and Writing (York: Collins and Hannay, 1826) [originally published 1795], 13; see also Samuel Johnson, A Dictionary of the English Language; in which the Words are Deduced from their Originals, explained in their Different Meanings, . . . To which is prefixed a Grammar of the English Language (London: printed for J. Johnson, C. Dilly, G.G. et al., 1799); Ludvig Munthe, La Bible à Madagascar. Les deux premières traductions du Nouveau Testament Malgache (Oslo: Land og Kirke, 1969), 41–7, 47.

  54. 54.

    Munthe, Bible à Madagascar, 49.

  55. 55.

    Lyall to the Madagascar Missionaries, [Antananarivo] 31 Jan 1829, MIL Bx.3 F.1 J.1, SOAS/CWM.

  56. 56.

    Robin, who taught Radama I between 1822 and 1825, wrote the current Malagasy “k” with “q” and “o” as “ou”—Antoine Jully, “Notes sur Robin” Notes, reconnaissances et explorations 2.3 (1898), 512.

  57. 57.

    Jeffreys to Jones, Antananarivo, 1 Apr 1823, Bx.1 F.4 J.C., MIL, SOAS/CWM; Jones and Griffiths to Thomas Philips, Tananarivou, 10 Jun 1824, 19157E, Archives of the National Library of Wales; Ellis, History of Madagascar, vol. 2, 320.

  58. 58.

    Campbell, David Griffiths, 665, 668.

  59. 59.

    Jean René to Farquhar, 4 Dec 1821, in “Correspondance de Jean René et Sir Robert Farquhar” (Jean Valette, ed.), Bulletin de l’Académie Malgache 45 (1967), 83; Raymond Decary, “Documents historiques relatifs à l’établissement française de Sainte-Marie sous la restoration”, Bulletin de l’Académie Malgache 13 (1930), 65; Raombana, “Annales”, 295; Ellis, History of Madagascar, vol. 1, 377–8; idem, Madagascar Revisited, describing the Events of a New Reign and the Revolution which Followed; setting forth also the Persecutions endured by the Christians, and their Heroic Sufferings, with Notices of the Present State and Prospects of the People (London: John Murray, 1867), 247–8; copies of correspondence between Freeman and Johns and Ranavalona I, MIL, Bx.4 F.3 J.C., and Bx.4 F.3 J.D., SOAS/CWM; Rabary, Ny Daty Malaza, vol. 1, 23, 26–7; Callet (ed.), Histoire des Rois, 928; Gwyn Campbell, “Labour and the Transport Problem in Imperial Madagascar, 1810–1895” Journal of African History 21.3 (1980), 341–3.

  60. 60.

    For a Southern African comparison, see Richard Price, Making Empire. Colonial Encounters and the Creation of Imperial Rule in Nineteenth-Century Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), ch.5.

  61. 61.

    Campbell, David Griffiths, 83, 665, 668.

  62. 62.

    David Griffiths, “The Second report of the Madagascar Missionary School Society, 1828, Under the Patronage of His Majesty Radama”, MIL Bx.2 F.4 J.D., SOAS/CWM.

  63. 63.

    For a comparison with the missionary focus on preaching in Southern Africa, see Price, Making Empire, 24–6, 51–2.

  64. 64.

    Gwyn Campbell, “Slavery and Fanompoana: The Structure of Forced Labour in Imerina (Madagascar), 1790–1861” Journal of African History 29.3 (1988), 466–74.

  65. 65.

    Radama I to Cole, Tananarivou 23 Oct 1826, HB 4, NAM.

  66. 66.

    Jones to Hankey, Tananarivou, 15 Jun 1827, MIL Bx.2 F.4 J.B., SOAS/CWM.

  67. 67.

    Jones to Hankey, Tananarivou, 15 Jun 1827, MIL Bx.2 F.4 J.B., SOAS/CWM.

  68. 68.

    Jones to Hankey, Tananarivou, 15 Jun 1827, MIL Bx.2 F.4 J.B., SOAS/CWM.

  69. 69.

    Jones and Griffiths to [LMS], Antananarivo, 9 Nov 1826, MIL Bx.2 F.3 J.D., and Freeman to Hankey, Tamatave, 9 Aug 1827, Bx.2 F.5—SOAS/CWM; Campbell, David Griffiths, 686.

  70. 70.

    Radama I to Cole, Tananarivou, 15 Nov 1826, HB 4, NAM.

  71. 71.

    Radama I to Cole, Tananarivou, 9 Mar 1827, HB 4, NAM.

  72. 72.

    Gwyn Campbell, “Role of the London Missionary Society in the Rise of the Merina Empire, 1810–1861” PhD, University of Wales, Swansea (1985), 205.

  73. 73.

    Robin to Missionaries, 24 Jan–14 Feb. 1827; Rowlands to Jones and Griffiths, Amparibe, 15 May 1827; Cummins to Jones and Griffiths, Amparibe, 17 May 1827; Cameron to J. & G. Brighton, 19 May 1827; Jones and Griffiths to Burder, Antananarivo, 30 May 1827; Cameron to Arundel, 19 May 1827—MIL, B2. F4. J.A., SOAS/CWM.

  74. 74.

    Clunie to Arundel, Manchester, 21 Jun 1825, in Simon Ayache, Raombana l’historien (1809–1855) (Fianarantsoa: Librarie Ambozontany, 1976), 272.

  75. 75.

    Campbell, David Griffiths, 708.

  76. 76.

    “Proposal to King Radama”, read to LMS directors, 25 Feb 1828, MIL Bx.2 F.4 J.C., SOAS/CWM.

  77. 77.

    Rabary, Daty Malaza, vol. I, 50, 59, 66; Jean Valette, Études sur le regne de Radama I (Tananarive: Imprimerie Nationale, 1962), 30; “Extracts of the Minutes of the Madagascar Mission” (4 May–8 Jul 1829), MIL, B.3. F.2. J.A., SOAS/CWM; Campbell, “Role of the London Missionary Society”, 206–7, 259–62.

  78. 78.

    Canham to Burder, Ifenoarivo, 3 Oct 1827, MIL Bx.2 F.4 J.C., SOAS/CWM.

  79. 79.

    Kathleen Wilson, The Island Race: Englishness, Empire and Gender in the Eighteenth Century (London: Routledge, 2003). Specifically, in relation to the LMS, Andrew Porter disagrees with Wilson, although Wales, the Welsh, and Madagascar—one of the most significant of LMS missions—receive scant attention in his analysis, and he fails to note that William Ellis, who steered LMS policy for much of the early nineteenth century, and took a particular interest in Madagascar, was firmly convinced of English Protestant superiority—Andrew Porter, Religion versus empire? British Protestant missionaries and overseas expansion, 1700–1914 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004), 7–10, 117–25; Campbell, David Griffiths, esp. chs. 3–4.

  80. 80.

    LMS Board Minutes, 30 Oct 1826; Freeman to LMS, [Kidderminster, 8 Nov 1826], Home Correspondence. General. A, Bx.4 F.8 J.B.—SOAS/CWM.

  81. 81.

    Freeman to Arundel, Tamatave, 4 Nov 1829, MIL Bx.3 F.5., SOAS/CWM.

  82. 82.

    Freeman in “Deputation to South Africa. Valedictory Service on the Departure of the Rev. J.J. Freeman” Missionary Magazine and Chronicle 151 (1 Dec 1848), 184; Joseph John Freeman, A Tour in South Africa, with Notices of Natal, Mauritius, Madagascar, Ceylon, Egypt, and Palestine (London: John Snow, 1851), 5; Price, Making Empire, 5, 17.

  83. 83.

    LMS Board Minutes, 24 Nov 1826, Home Correspondence. General. A, Bx.4 F.8 J.B.—SOAS/CWM.

  84. 84.

    Freeman to [LMS], Port Louis, 26 Jul 1827, Bx.2 F.4 J.C., MIL, SOAS/CWM; Freeman to Hankey, Tamatave, 9 Aug 1827, Evangelical Magazine and Missionary Chronicle (Feb 1828), 77.

  85. 85.

    “Brief Memoir of the Late Mrs. Ross of Kidderminster” Evangelical Magazine and Missionary Chronicle (Jan 1830), 2; Freeman to [LMS], Port Louis, 26 Jul 1827, Bx.2 F.4 J.C., MIL, SOAS/CWM.

  86. 86.

    Freeman to [LMS], Port Louis, 26 Jul 1827, MIL Bx.2 F.4 J.C., SOAS/CWM.

  87. 87.

    LMS Board Minutes, 19 Mar and 2 Apr 1827, SOAS/CWM.

  88. 88.

    Freeman to Dr. Philips, Tananarive, 3 Jun 1828, Bx.2 F.5., MIL, SOAS/CWM.

  89. 89.

    Griffiths to LMS, 6 Jan 1827, Evangelical Magazine and Missionary Chronicle (Sep 1827), 405–6.

  90. 90.

    Freeman to LMS [Kidderminster, 8 Nov 1826], Home Correspondence General A.1, Bx.4 F.8 J.B., SOAS/CWM.

  91. 91.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 3 Mar 1829, CO 167–116, NAK.

  92. 92.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 29 Oct 1827, in Georges-Sully Chapus et Gustave Mondain, Le Journal de Robert Lyall (Tananarive: Imprimerie Officielle, 1954), 59; Lyall to Missionaries, Tananarive, 10 Jan 1829, F.1 J.A., MIL, SOAS/CWM.

  93. 93.

    Jones and Griffiths to Cole, Tananarivou 1 Nov 1826, HB 4, NAM.

  94. 94.

    Lowry Cole to Radama, Mauritius, 29 Sep 1827, in “Memorandum of Lieut. Campbell, late Acting British Agent at Madagascar”, CO 167–116, NAK.

  95. 95.

    Radama I to Cole, Tananaivou 8 Jan 1827, HB 4, NAM; see also Jones to Viret, Antananarivou, 9 Jan 1827, HB 4, NAM.

  96. 96.

    Jones to Viret, Tananarivou, 10 May 1827, HB 4, NAM.

  97. 97.

    Jones to [Viret], “private”, Tananarivou 18 Jul 1827, HB 4, NAM.

  98. 98.

    Henry Cole to Jones, Umbattenkazac, 5 Jun 1827, Jones to Cole, “private”, Tananarivou, 13 Jun 1827, and Cole to Jones, Tamatave, 30 Jun 1827—HB 4, NAM.

  99. 99.

    Jones to Viret, Tananarivou, 4 Oct 1827, HB 4, NAM.

  100. 100.

    Jones to Viret, Tananarivou 12 Dec 1827, HB 4, NAM.

  101. 101.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 1 Mar 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  102. 102.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 1 Mar 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  103. 103.

    C. Moorson to Hastie, H.M.S. Andromache, Mauritius, 26 Nov 1824, HB 5, NAM.

  104. 104.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 1 Nov 1827, CO 167/116, NAK.

  105. 105.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 3 Jan 1829, CO 167/116, NAK; Freeman to Hankey, Tananarive, 3 Mar 1829, MIL Bx.3 F.5., SOAS/CWM.

  106. 106.

    “Extracts from a Letter from the Rev. J.J. Freeman, dated Tananarivou, Madagascar, October 23, 1827; addressed to the late Secretary [Burder?]” Evangelical Magazine and Missionary Chronicle (Apr 1828), 170.

  107. 107.

    Freeman to Philip, Tananarivo, 3 Jun 1828, Bx.2 F.5., MIL, SOAS/CWM.

  108. 108.

    Freeman to LMS [Kidderminster, 8 Nov 1826], Home Correspondence General A.1, Bx.4 F.8 J.B., SOAS/CWM; see also David Bogue, “Lectures on Missions given to students at Gosport”, PPMS63 J.T. Hardyman People File 18, Bx.10., SOAS/CWM.

  109. 109.

    “Letter from Jones and Griffiths”, 9 Nov 1826, Africa and Madagascar, Committee Minutes, Meeting of Southern Committee, Monday 28 May 1827, SOAS/CWM.

  110. 110.

    Freeman to LMS, Antananarivo, 10 May 1828, Committee Minutes, Africa and Madagascar, Book 1. 18 May 1826 to 17 Jul 1837, CWM/SOAS.

  111. 111.

    Raombana, “Annales”, 429; see also Johns to Phillips, Tananarivo, 12 May 1828, 19157E, Archives of the National Library of Wales; LMS Board Minutes, 26 Oct 1829, SOAS/CWM; Freeman to Hankey, Port Louis, 19 Jul 1830, MIL Bx.3 F.3 J.C., SOAS/CWM.

  112. 112.

    William Ellis, Three Visits to Madagascar during the years 1853–1854–1856. Including a Journey to the Capital. With Notices of the Natural History of the Country and of the Present Civilisation of the People (London: John Murray, 1859), 51.

  113. 113.

    Quoted in Françoise Raison, “L’Echange inégal de la langue: La pénétration des techniques linguistiques au sein d’une civilisation de l’oral (Imerina, début du XIXe siècle)” Revue annales ESC (février 1976), note 44.

  114. 114.

    Freeman to Hankey, Tananarive, 3 Mar 1829, Bx.3 F.5., MIL, SOAS/CWM.

  115. 115.

    Bennet to Missionaries, Tamatave (at sea), 6–10 Sep 1828, Bx.2 F.4 J.D., MIL, SOAS/CWM; James Montgomery, “Memoir of the late George Bennet Esq., of Sheffield”, Sheffield, 5 Jan 1842, Evangelical Magazine and Missionary Chronicle 20 (1842), 53–62; David Griffiths, Hanes Madagascar, neu Grynodeb o Hanes yr Ynys, ei Chynyrch, ei Masnach, ac Ansawdd ei Thrigolion; yn nghyda’u Harferiadau Creulon, a’u Heilunaddoliaeth Ffiaidd. Hefyd, Hanes y Genadaeth, yn ei Llwyddiant a’i Haflwyddiant; yn nghyda’u Herledigaethau a’u Merthyrdodau, o’r Dechreuad yn 1818, hyd 1843 (Machynlleth: Richard Jones, 1843), 47.

  116. 116.

    Griffiths to LMS, Antananarivo, Sep 1828, Committee Minutes, Africa and Madagascar, Book 1. 18 May 1826 to 17 Jul 1837, CWM/SOAS; Griffiths, Hanes Madagascar, 47; Montgomery (ed.), Journal of Voyages (1831), vol. 3, 562.

  117. 117.

    D. Jones, D. Griffiths, D. Johns and J.J. Freeman to George Bennet, Tananarivo, 11 Aug 1828, in Montgomery (ed.), Journal of Voyages (Boston: Crocker and Brewster, 1832) vol. 3, 275–9.

  118. 118.

    Lovett, History of the London Missionary Society vol. 1, 687.

  119. 119.

    Freeman to Hankey, Tananarive, 12 Mar 1829, MIL Bx.3 F.5., SOAS/CWM.

  120. 120.

    Lyall to Hankey, Tananarive, 18 Sep 1828, MIL Bx.2 F.4 J.D., SOAS/CWM.

  121. 121.

    Lyall to Hankey, Tananarivou, 15 Mar 1829, MIL Bx.3 F.1 J.2., SOAS/CWM.

  122. 122.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 12 Mar 1829, CO 167–116, NAK.

  123. 123.

    Lyall to Hankey, Tananarivou, 15 Mar 1829, MIL Bx.3 F.1 J.2., SOAS/CWM.

  124. 124.

    Lyall to Hankey, Tananarivou, 15 Mar 1829, Bx.3 F.1 J.2., MIL, SOAS/CWM.

  125. 125.

    Lyall to Hankey, Tananarivou, 15 Mar 1829, Bx.3 F.1 J.2., MIL, SOAS/CWM.

  126. 126.

    Baker to Ellis, Antananarivo, 19 Jun 1835, Bx.5 F.2 J.A., MIL, SOAS/CWM.

  127. 127.

    Lyall to Hankey, Tananarive, 18 Sep 1828, MIL Bx.2 F.4 J.D., SOAS/CWM; Sigmund Edland, “Evangelists or Envoys? The role of British missionaries at turning points in Malagasy political history, 1820–1840” PhD, School of Mission and Theology, Stavanger (2006), 159.

  128. 128.

    Coroller to Lyall, 27 Jul 1828, quoted in Edland, “Evangelists or Envoys?”, 160.

  129. 129.

    Radama I to Lyall, 29 Jul 1828, quoted in Edland, “Evangelists or Envoys?”, 160.

  130. 130.

    A Breton name—many Francophones on the Mascarenes were of Breton origin.

  131. 131.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 24 Feb. 1829, CO 167–116, NAK.

  132. 132.

    Lyall to Jones, [Antananarivo], 13 Aug 1828, Lyall, Journal (1828), CO 167–116, NAK.

  133. 133.

    Jones to Lyall, Antananarivo, 13 August 1828, in Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 24 Feb 1829, CO 167–116, NAK.

  134. 134.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 24 Feb 1829, CO 167–116, NAK.

  135. 135.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 13 Oct 1828, CO 167/116, NAK.

  136. 136.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 23 Nov 1828, quoted in Edland, “Evangelists or Envoys?”, 168.

  137. 137.

    Raombana “Annales”, 181; Ellis, History of Madagascar, vol. 2, 417–8.

  138. 138.

    Lyall to Colville, Ambouhiainou, 31 Mar 1829, in Lyall, Journal (1829), CO 167–116, NAK.

  139. 139.

    Raombana “Annales”, 181; Ellis, History of Madagascar, vol. 2, 417–8; Gwyn Campbell, An Economic History of Imperial Madagascar, 1750–1895. The Rise and Fall of an Island Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 213–42.

  140. 140.

    David Griffiths, Hanes Madagascar, 57–8.

  141. 141.

    David Griffiths, Hanes Madagascar, 51.

  142. 142.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 11 Jan 1829, CO 167–116, NAK.

  143. 143.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 17 Jan 1829, CO 167–116, NAK.

  144. 144.

    Lyall to Griffiths, Ambouni-Antsahatsiroua, 31 Jan 1829, in Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 24 Feb 1829, CO 167–116, NAK.

  145. 145.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 2 Feb 1829, CO 167–116, NAK.

  146. 146.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 3 Feb 1829, CO 167–116, NAK.

  147. 147.

    Lyall, “Circular”, 31 Jan 1829, MIL Bx.3 F.1 J.1., SOAS/CWM.

  148. 148.

    Freeman to Hankey, Tananarive, 10 Feb 1829, MIL Bx.3 F.1 J.A., SOAS/CWM; see also Freeman to LMS, Madagascar, 9 Feb 1829, Committee Minutes, Africa and Madagascar, Book 1 (18 May 1826 to 17 Jul 1837), SOAS/CWM.

  149. 149.

    Lyall to Colville, Tananarivou, 10 Feb 1829 in Lyall, Journal (1829), CO 167–116, NAK.

  150. 150.

    Lyall to missionaries, Ambouni-Antsahatsiroua, 19 Feb 1829, in Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 24 Feb. 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  151. 151.

    Lyall to Missionaries, Ambouni-Antsahatsiroua in Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 24 Feb. 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  152. 152.

    Lyall, Journal (1829), entry for 24 Feb 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  153. 153.

    Freeman to Hankey, 12 Mar 1829, quoted in Edland, “Evangelists or Envoys?”, 172 fn.537.

  154. 154.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entries for 3 Jan and 24 Feb 1829, CO 167/116, NAK; Lyall to missionaries, Tananarive, 10 Jan 1829, MIL Bx3 F.1 J.A., SOAS/CWM.

  155. 155.

    “Minutes of a Meeting of the Members of the Mission at Madagascar”, 19 Feb 1829, MIL Bx.3 J.1 F.1; and Freeman to Hankey, Tananarive, 12 Mar 1829, MIL Bx.3 F.5—SOAS/CWM.

  156. 156.

    Coroller to [Jones], 1 Feb 1829, MIL Bx.3 J.1 F.1., SOAS/CWM; Coroller to [Jones], 18 Feb 1829, MIL Bx.3 J.1 F.1., SOAS/CWM.

  157. 157.

    Freeman to Hankey, Tananarive, 12 Mar 1829, MIL Bx.3 F.5., SOAS/CWM.

  158. 158.

    Freeman to Hankey, Tananarive, 12 Mar 1829, MIL Bx.3 F.5., SOAS/CWM.

  159. 159.

    Lyall to Hankey, Tananarivou, 15 Mar 1829, MIL Bx.3 F.1 J.2., SOAS/CWM.

  160. 160.

    Tyerman and Bennet to LMS, Mauritius, 21 Mar 1828, Committee Minutes, Africa and Madagascar, Book 1. 18 May 1826 to 17 Jul 1837, CWM/SOAS.

  161. 161.

    Lyall to Hankey, Tananarivou, 15 Mar 1829, Bx.3 F.1 J.2., MIL, SOAS/CWM.

  162. 162.

    Telfair to Jones, Bois Cheri, 21 Dec 1830, MIL Bx.3 F.4 J.C., SOAS/CWM.

  163. 163.

    Anon, “souvenirs d’un vieux créole Malgache”, ms. avril 1894, carton dossier 11 K, Archives historiques de la Vice-Province Société de Jésus de Madagascar, Antananarivo; see also Abel Hugo, France Pittoresque ou description pittoresque, topographique et statistique des départements et colonies de la France (Paris: Delloye, 1835), vol. 3, 320; Ellis, History of Madagascar, vol. 2, 210–11; Henri Le Chartier and G. Pellerin, Madagascar depuis sa decouverte jusqu’à nos jours (Paris: Jouvet, 1888), 26.

  164. 164.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 26 Dec 1829, CO 167–116, NAK.

  165. 165.

    See, for example, Un Capitaine de Navire Français, Rapport, 20 mars 1844, in “Côte orientale de Madagascar”, Annales maritimes et colonials 88 (1844), 49.

  166. 166.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 26 Dec 1829, CO 167–116, NAK.

  167. 167.

    Jean-Louis Joseph Carayon, Histoire de l’établissement français de Madagascar pendant la restauration précédée d’une description de cette ile et suivie de quelques considérations politiques et commerciales sur l’expédition et la colonisation de Madagascar (Paris: Gide, 1845), 110–11; Griffiths to Hankey, Antananarivo, 29 Nov 1830, B.3. F.4. J.B.; Johns to Hankey, Antananarivo, 12 Apr 1831, B.4. F.1. J.A.—MIL, SOAS/CWM; Jones “LMS Questionnaire” [Dec 1831], SOAS/CWM.

  168. 168.

    Joseph John Freeman and David Johns, A Narrative of the Persecution of the Christians in Madagascar (London: John Snow, 1840), 87; see also David Johns, Hanes am Erlidigaeth y Cristnogion yn Madagascar; ynghyd a Diangfa y Ffoedigion i Brydain Fawr (Llanelli: David Rees & John Thomas, 1840), 16.

  169. 169.

    Raombana, vol. 8, B.1, 36—Archives de la République Malgache. Fonds Résidence Générale de France; see also Raombana, “Annales”, 176.

  170. 170.

    Rakotobe (1817–28), Radama I’s nephew and nominated heir, assassinated during Ranavalona’s seizure of the throne—Campbell, David Griffiths, 49–50.

  171. 171.

    Raombana, “Annales”, 176.

  172. 172.

    Coppalle, “Voyage dans l’intérieur de Madagascar”, 42.

  173. 173.

    Freeman to Hankey, Antananarivo, 12 Mar 1829, Bx.3 F.5.; Lyall to Hankey, Antananarivo, 15 Mar 1829, Bx.3 F.1 J.2.; Freeman to Philip, Antananarivo, 12 Jun 1832, Bx.4 F.2 J.C.; Freeman to Ellis, Antananarivo, 27 Feb 1834, Bx.5 F.1 J.B.—MIL, SOAS/CWM.

  174. 174.

    Griffiths to Radama, Tananarivo, 22 Jan 1823, HH1, 526, ANM.

  175. 175.

    Raombana, vol. 8, B.1, 36.

  176. 176.

    Freeman to Hankey, Tananarivou, 28 Feb 1829, MIL Bx.3 F.1 J.1., SOAS/CWM.

  177. 177.

    Henri Bourde de La Rogerie, Les Bretons aux Îles de France et de Bourbon (Maurice et la Réunion) au XVIIe et au XVIIIe Siècle (Rennes: Imprimeries Oberthur, 1934)—https://books.google.de/books?id=4dtYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT9&lpg=PT9&dq=Les+Bretons+aux+%C3%8Eles+de+France+et+de+Bourbon&source=bl&ots=g0wiQGveGO&sig=R55cbCc8MYtWroTVFyDmLMQM0u8&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjCwLXBiefaAhUlAsAKHdpDBRw4ChDoAQhYMAc#v=onepage&q=Les%20Bretons%20aux%20%C3%8Eles%20de%20France%20et%20de%20Bourbon&f=false (accessed 02/05/18).

  178. 178.

    Désiré Laverdant, Colonisation de Madagascar (Paris: La Société Maritime, 1844), 131–2.

  179. 179.

    Laverdant, Colonisation de Madagascar, 131–2.

  180. 180.

    Arthur Frankland, Ten Weeks Leave of Absence: Cruise from Mauritius to Madagascar and East Coast of Africa—Plymouth and West Devon Record Office ref.216.

  181. 181.

    Jones to Hankey, London, 16 Aug 1831, MIL Bx.4 F.3 J.A., SOAS/CWM; Raombana, “Annales”, 322–3, 357; J.P.P. Jourdain, “Ile de Madagascar. Notice sur les Hovas” Nouvelles annales des voyages et des sciences géographiques 84 (oct–déc 1839), 10; Manassé Esoavelomandroso, “The ‘Malagasy Creoles’ of Tamatave in the 19th Century” Diogenes 28 (1980), 53.

  182. 182.

    Laverdant, Colonisation de Madagascar, 131–2.

  183. 183.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 12 Mar 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  184. 184.

    A position formalised by royal decree on 4 December the same year—Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 26 Jan 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  185. 185.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entries for 21 Jan and 26 Jan 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  186. 186.

    Lyall to Ranavalona, 22 Jan 1829, in Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 26 Jan. 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  187. 187.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 24 Feb 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  188. 188.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 26 Jan 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  189. 189.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 24 Feb 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  190. 190.

    Lyall to Jones, Griffiths, Johns and Freeman, “Private and Confidential”, Ambouni-Antsahatsiroua, 26 Feb 1829, Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 24 Feb 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  191. 191.

    Lyall to Jones, Griffiths, Johns and Freeman, “Private and Confidential”, Ambouni-Antsahatsiroua, 26 Feb 1829, Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 24 Feb 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  192. 192.

    “Regulations or Laws respecting the Conduct of the Madagascar Missionaries” in Lyall (Journal for 1829), CO 167/116, NAK; see also Morgan’s Report, Tananarivou, 27 Feb 1829, in Lyall (Journal for 1829), CO 167/116, NAK.

  193. 193.

    Jones’ answer, in Morgan’s Report, Tananarivou, 27 Feb 1829, in Lyall (Journal for 1829), CO 167/116, NAK.

  194. 194.

    Griffiths’ answer, in Morgan’s Report, Tananarivou, 27 Feb 1829, in Lyall (Journal for 1829), CO 167/116, NAK.

  195. 195.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for [27 Feb] 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  196. 196.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for [28 Feb] 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  197. 197.

    Freeman to Hankey, Tananarive, 28 Feb 1829, MIL Bx.3 F.1 J.1., SOAS/CWM.

  198. 198.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 1 Mar 1829, CO 167/116, NAK; see also Lyall to Colville, Tananarivou 1 Mar 1829 in Lyall, Journal (1829), CO 167/116, NAK.

  199. 199.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 1 Mar 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  200. 200.

    Lyall to Colville, in Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 3 Mar 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  201. 201.

    Lyall to Colville, in Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 3 Mar 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  202. 202.

    Lyall to the Missionaries, “Ambouni-Antsahatsiroua”, 5 Mar 1829, in Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 3 Mar 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  203. 203.

    Note in text: “vide 33d. Report of the Missionary Society for 1827, p. 103”.

  204. 204.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 3 Mar 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  205. 205.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 5 Mar 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  206. 206.

    Lyall to Colville, Tananarivou, 1 Mar 1829 in Lyall, Journal (1829), CO 167/116, NAK.

  207. 207.

    Freeman to Hankey, Tananarive, 3 Mar 1829, Bx.3 F.5., MIL, SOAS/CWM; see also Freeman to Hankey, Tananarive, 12 Mar 1829, Bx.3 F.5, MIL, SOAS/CWM.

  208. 208.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 5 Mar 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  209. 209.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 14 Mar 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  210. 210.

    “Memorial of Robert Lyall Esqre., British Resident Agent, addressed to Her Majesty Ranavalona, Queen of Madagascar. Tananarivou 9th March 1829”, in Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 14 Mar 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  211. 211.

    Lyall to Colville in Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 12 Mar 1829, CO 167/116, NAK.

  212. 212.

    Lyall, “Journal”, entry for 14 Mar 1829; see also Lyall to Colville, Tananarivou, 15 Mar 1829, in Lyall, Journal (1829), CO 167/116, NAK.

  213. 213.

    Lyall to Hankey, Tananarivou, 15 Mar 1829, Bx.3 F.1 J.2., MIL, SOAS/CWM.

  214. 214.

    Coroller, 3 Aug 1830, in “Extracts from Letters”, MIL Bx.4 F.3 J.B., SOAS/CWM.

  215. 215.

    Extract dated 12 Jan 1829 in Minute Book of the Madagascar Mission, Bx.3 F.2 J.C.; Extract dated 31 Jan 1829, in “Minutes of a Meeting of the Members of the Mission at Madagascar”, 19 Feb 1829, Bx.3 F.1 J.1.; Baker to Arundel, Tananarivo, 29 Mar 1829, MIL Bx.3 F.1 J.B., SOAS/CWM; Freeman to Hankey, Antananarivo, 3 Mar and 12 Mar 1829, Bx.3 F.4 J.C.—MIL, SOAS/CWM.

  216. 216.

    Jones to Hankey, Antananarivo, 23 Mar 1829, MIL, Bx.3 F.1 J.2., SOAS/CWM.

  217. 217.

    Report, 26 Oct 1829, Committee Minutes, Africa and Madagascar, Book 1. 18 May 1826 to 17 Jul 1837, SOAS/CWM.

  218. 218.

    Report, 26 Oct 1829, Committee Minutes, Africa and Madagascar, Book 1. 18 May 1826 to 17 Jul 1837, SOAS/CWM; see also LMS Board Minutes, 26 Oct and 9 Nov 1829, SOAS/CWM.

  219. 219.

    Griffiths to LMS, Antananarivo, 12 Jul 1830, MIL Bx.3 F.3 J.C, SOAS/CWM.

  220. 220.

    Freeman to Colville, Tananarivo, 9 Dec 1831, HB 20, NAM.

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Campbell, G. (2020). Expatriate Intrigue. In: The Travels of Robert Lyall, 1789–1831. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-51648-2_4

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