Abstract
The first conflict is informed by the uncertainty of a distinction between reality and fiction. The loci of dispute are bad influences on youth, cultivation processes through media, escapism into media, or game induced violence as well as positively evaluated learning effects. All share shifting boundaries of what is meant by invoking reality. Based on the main argument of this study with its emphasis on multiplicity and uncertainty of practices, the book’s first chapter or “Act” traces the path of various practices that would at one point be referred to as RPGs, only to diversify again, warranting the concept of assemblage of practices to sum them up. This chapter deals with different modes of ordering this practice, with a focus on its trajectory to and from Japan, followed by a literature review on the specialist discourse of game design as well as governmental concerns about escapism, the flight from “reality.”
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Notes
- 1.
Consult especially Peterson for a detailed account on the trajectory from wargaming to TRPGs and Appelcline for the development of the industry in the US. As this book deals exclusively with non-digital gaming, computer mediated RPGs do not feature in the following history. For their development, see King and Borland (2003) and Barton and Stacks (2019).
- 2.
Sanskrit, meaning “four divisions,” more specifically the four divisions of the military, namely chariots, cavalry, infantry, and elephants. Chaturaṅga counts as the common predecessor of the board games Xiangqi (China), Shatranj (Persia), Janggi (Korea), Shōgi (Japan), Makruk (Thailand), and Chess (Europe).
- 3.
One Thaler had 22,272 g silver (Verdenhalven 1968) which would cost about €1.15 today. However, if we look at the buying power of a Thaler, one Thaler equals DM14.70 in 1967, which translates to ca. €27.89 in 2019 (Lindcom 2019). The Reiswitz 1828 edition would have cost approx. €840 (or $900) in late 2019.
- 4.
The quote is taken from the so-called 1st edition of the game, published in 1978, and not from the “original” of 1974, which was a supplement to the authors’ war game Chainmail. This “Original D&D” or OD&D inspired many others to design a similar game. The 1st edition of 1978 was marketed as a fantasy RPG, the “original” still as a wargame.
- 5.
Depending on the game, a player character receives XP for different actions and to differing amounts. In earlier editions of D&D, for example, most XP were earned for killing monsters (=non-humans)—1 XP for a sheep, 100 XP for an orc, and so on. If a certain threshold was reached, say 1000 XP for the transition from level 1 to level 2, then the character would “level up.” In systems without levels, XP can be spent to increase skills (e.g. “Computer,” “Medicine,” or “Brawl”). Story focused games also may not be so generous with XP—you might only gain 1 or 2 per session. This is to “increase” the realism of learning new skills, which does not happen overnight.
- 6.
The first editions of D&D, for example, used two 10-sided dice for so-called percentage rolls, one dice with the numbers 1-9 and the other with 00-10. Players had to roll a number smaller than the given difficulty to hit an opponent, for example (“you have a 15% chance of hitting”). 4-, 6-, 8- and other multi-sided dice were used for different kinds of rolls (see book cover for example dice). The correct dice to be used is usually indicated by a lowercase “d,” the appropriate number, and a preceding quantity count. Some game systems are named after the dice mostly used during play, for example Wizards of the Coast’s d20-system, or GroupSNE’s 2d6-system.
- 7.
The history and impact of the World of Darkness on gaming but also club culture featured in a recent documentary of the same name (Alderson 2017).
- 8.
This sentence is tautological in its English rendition. In Japanese, however, the loanword “role-playing” (or rōrupureingu) is explained with “yakuwari o enjiru”—acting out, portraying or playing a role.
- 9.
A 30-year anniversary edition of the original game and its Record of Lodoss War franchise, including new manga and remastered anime, is in the works since 2019 (see, https://sneakerbunko.jp/lodoss30th; accessed 2020/02/20).
- 10.
The English-language magazine created by Steve Jackson and Ian Livingstone focused on adventure gamebooks, where the reader can make choices and so create their own stories. The Japanese edition deviated from this focus and dealt more with TRPGs, especially Traveller, when the magazine continued until 1997 even though the English original had already ceased publication in 1986.
- 11.
For more on the relationship between role-playing games and science fiction, especially in the formative years in Japan, see Okawada (2017).
- 12.
The Japanese platform niconico still remains the leader and today hosts thousands of such videos, which slowly take over from the published replay novels. Outside Japan, semi-professional shows like Critical Role follow a similar format (https://critrole.com; accessed 2020/02/20).
- 13.
The art-nouveau-style illustrations for which Lodoss is known featured in the 2019 exhibition “Timeless Mucha—Mucha to Manga: The Magic of Line” of the Mucha Foundation, so that this particular media-mix goes beyond manga, anime, and games.
- 14.
MMORPG stands for Massively Multi-Player Online Role-Playing Game, of which globally the most popular is World of Warcraft. Thousands of players from different regions meet online in virtual server environments to play together or fight each other.
- 15.
All interviewee names have been changed for anonymity.
- 16.
Black-skinned, underground-dwelling dark elves, the Drow, were introduced in the game world setting Forgotten Realms (Greenwood et al. 1987) and to this day feature large in debates between players about depictions of people of colour and female rulers in RPGs as intrinsically evil. Because of this, official publications by WotC, for example, switched the skin colour to purple or grey (which leaves the misogynist image of evil females untouched, however). Still, white players often insist on black skin, also when portraying Drow in live-action role-plays, which receives blame because of similarities to “blackface,” white people with black make-up portraying stereotypes of black people. Players in favour of black skin paint for Drow insist that “this is just a fantasy game” with no connections to systematic oppression of people of colour in the real world. Others ask for more sensitivity towards those who experience it as too similar to blackface. As recent as late 2019, this led to heated discussions in respective Facebook groups.
- 17.
In German and (American) English Live-Action Roleplay is usually abbreviated as LARP. Since the first publication of the “Knutepunkt books,” collections of essays from the so-named Nordic role-playing conference, “larp” (lowercase, as a noun; e.g. “a larp” for an event) and “larping” (the activity) are now widely used in European English-language discussions of the practice (Fatland 2005, 12; Holter et al. 2009, 5). As this language use is also spreading into other language spheres, I decided to follow this tradition.
- 18.
Like so many other concepts, authenticity, suffers from multiple meanings, often present in parallel in negotiations of the authentic (Theodossopoulos 2013). As discussed in Chapter 3, this study does not aim at a romanticized, deep or hidden authenticity or true selves. When the term is brought up, it is always in its local situatedness and qualified, such as “historical accuracy” in this case.
- 19.
30% of larps in Germany used DKW(D)DK in 2013 (Bölle 2013) and over 50% of announced larps did so in 2018. The second number is based on a search analysis on Germany’s largest website for larp announcements, the Larp-Kalender: www.larpkalender.de (accessed 2020/02/20).
- 20.
The newly acquired White Wolf set out to reinvent Vampire larp by incorporating elements from Nordic larp.
- 21.
Often played in whole castles or on many hectares of land, spectators would have a hard time following the narrative evolving out of player interactions. In Japan, where many larps are played indoors, a not-playing audience may be invited more easily.
- 22.
Larp design theory and practice today knows many more so-called calibration techniques to navigate such ambiguous situations as well as providing player safety (Koljonen 2019).
- 23.
For example, from the TRPG channel Off_theTable: https://www.twitch.tv/videos/391806710 (accessed 2020/02/20).
- 24.
Personal interview with designers Kitazawa Kei, Tomono Shō, and Fujisawa Sanae (2010).
- 25.
Most Dziobak IPs, such as College of Wizardry, found new owners and an Indiegogo crowdfunding campaign helped ensure the continuing run of these larps.
- 26.
Concerning legal questions, CLOSS also applied for and received the trademark rights in Japan for “LARP” in April 2017, in order to ensure that no one, especially no big publisher or corporation, could do the same and hinder others at producing larps in Japan.
- 27.
With the US broadcaster HBO’s recent “Westworld: The Experience” at San Diego Comic-Con International in 2017 and Disney’s Star Wars hotel and “Rise of the Resistance” experience starting 2019 in Disneyland, big corporations have begun to move into larp territory—giving this mode of ordering a new, yet to be studied spin. Especially, if we consider that Disney applied for and was granted a patent for the game master function (Role-play simulation engine, US9213935 B2).
Again, we see partial connections: These new attempts at producing immersive experiences for customers differ/will differ from what many practitioners consider larp (e.g. the Westworld experience did not offer a plot). Still, at least the Disney Imagineers sought out members of the Nordic larp field and participated in workshops and lectures on larp design.
- 28.
- 29.
The term spawned not only an international controversy but also creativity of a sort in the 2013 manga “20XXnen, umu-kikai - seifukōnin-tanetsuke-purojekuto” (The Year 20XX, birthing-machines—A Government Approved Mating Project) by Hagi Amone, an erotic lady comic targeted at a female audience.
- 30.
For ambiguous, fictional representations of hikikomori, see Takimoto Tatsuhiko’s semi-autobiographical N.H.K. ni Yōkoso! (Welcome to the N.H.K.), or Ernest Cline’s rather racist 2011 Ready Player One, which depicts two hikikomori with some positive spin.
- 31.
Cf. his speech at the Digital Hollywood University, Asō (2006).
- 32.
Edu-larp organisers thus place much importance on debriefing and reflection: Such larps are not limited to just being played but incorporate many other educational tools.
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Kamm, BO. (2020). Games—Playing with Borders of Reality, or the First Act. In: Role-Playing Games of Japan. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50953-8_2
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