Abstract
We report the results of our analysis of the development of general relativity between 1925 and 1970 based on the conceptual and methodological framework of socio-epistemic networks comprised of three different layers: social, semiotic, and semantic. Our computational approach is used to uncover the mechanism of the passage between the low-water-mark phase of general relativity—roughly from the mid-1920s to the mid-1950s—and the so-called renaissance of the theory after the mid-1950s. Based on this multilayer analysis, we provide substantial empirical evidence that between the second half of the 1950s and the early 1960s there was an evident shift in all three layers. Our analysis disproves common explanations of the renaissance process. It shows that this phenomenon was not a consequence of astrophysical discoveries in the 1960s, nor was it a simple by-product of socio-economic transformations in the physics landscape after World War II. We argue instead that the renaissance has to be understood as a two-phase process both at the social and at the epistemic level. The first occurred between the second half of the 1950s and the early 1960s, when a growing community of physicists redirected their interest toward physical problems in general relativity, while the previous period was characterized by a dispersion of research agendas aimed at substituting the theory with a different and more general one. We call this first phase the theoretical renaissance general relativity. The second phase, which we call the astrophysical turn, was instead an experiment-driven process that started with the discovery of quasars and was characterized by the emergence of relativistic astrophysics and physical cosmology as well as the early phases of gravitational-wave astronomy.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
See also (Wellman 1988).
- 2.
We are not referring here to efforts in science and technology studies to produce a social theory of science and technology based on network notions, such as the Actor-Network-Theory (see, e.g., Latour 1987).
- 3.
For an extensive introduction to the field of SNA, see (Wasserman and Faust 1994).
- 4.
- 5.
The detailed description of how the dataset was created and prepared for data analysis is described in (Wintergrün 2019).
- 6.
In network theory, there is no agreed-on formal or quantitative definition of giant component and we rested on the intuition that a giant component is the largest connected component when it contains most of the nodes and edges of the network in very evident ways.
- 7.
As derivative, we are using the symmetric difference quotient for each point, see standard textbooks on numerical analysis (e.g., Kress 1998).
- 8.
Betweenness centrality quantifies the relevance of a node as a broker between weakly connected sub-parts of a connected network. More precisely, it is a measure of the number of shortest paths passing through a node (Freeman 1977).
- 9.
More precisely, it is the sum of the length of the shortest paths between the node and all other nodes in the network (Bavelas 1950).
- 10.
We included only items that can be reasonably considered research products: Book reviews, biographical items, and items about individuals have been discarded.
- 11.
In order to be more inclusive we added non-matching references cited more than 5 times in our dataset, namely, cited publications that are not included in our original dataset, for example, books or articles published in journals not indexed by WoS. To reduce the range and diversity, we excluded items that were cited less than 5 times by the papers of our dataset as well as those published before 1915, which returned a total of 4020 items. On the basis of this selection, we looked at possible clusters of papers, understood as proxies of specific research areas. After this stage, we used a relatively high resolution in order to define areas of research more precisely. Criteria used for the clustering algorithm: resolution: 2.00; minimum cluster size: 10; number of random starts: 10; number of iterations: 40; random seed: 1. The community detection algorithm embedded in CitNetExplorer with the abovementioned resolution detected 29 clusters of cited publications, while 324 of them did not belong to any cluster. We then excluded the items not belonging to any cluster as well as two smaller clusters that were only slightly connected with the largest connected component of the citation network of general relativity research. We have excluded from the visualization the cluster of 48 papers connected to the research area in solid state physics concerning the employment of non-Riemannian geometry for the study of dislocations in crystal initiated in (Bilby et al. 1955), as this research area was disconnected from the other clusters; although, interestingly, it also emerged in the mid-1950s renaissance period of general relativity. The second removed cluster was on Earth’s gravitation field measurements.
- 12.
They are part of the purple cluster, but did not belong to most cited 100 papers.
- 13.
Since the numbers of citations are much less than in the previous analysis, we have kept a very low threshold concerning the number of publication: 1 citation for non-matching entries, and 2 citation score.
- 14.
The total number of cited references for the entire period is 78,936 items.
- 15.
To give an idea of the quantitative difference, the cited references in a 30-year period between 1926 and 1955 are only 6949, while the number of cited references of the 5-year period 1966–1970 is 21,745. In the same periods, the number of references that meet the threshold of 3 citations is only 398 for the first 30-year period, while it is 1975 for the second one.
- 16.
During this period, 2029 references were cited by the papers in our dataset, but only 170 papers met the threshold of two citations.
- 17.
The small brown cluster does not seem to be easily identifiable with a specific research topic, but mostly concerns tensor analysis.
- 18.
2403 references, of which 225 meet the threshold of two citations. 171 papers in the largest components divided in 9 clusters, which largely correspond to those of the period 1915–1940.
- 19.
We have tested the 5-year periods (1926–1930, 1931–1935, 1936–1940, and 1941–1945). All of these periods have less than 55 papers (as the maximum) meeting the threshold of two citations. Of these, more than 20 percent did not belong to the largest connected component. Furthermore, textbooks (Eddington 1924, Tolman 1934) and reviews (Robertson 1933) had a fundamental relevance in connecting different parts of the largest components.
- 20.
Parameters used for the visualization: attraction: 10; repulsion: 1. Parameters used in the clustering algorithm: resolution: 1.20; random starts: 100; iteration: 40; random seeds: 1; minimum cluster size: 5.
- 21.
See the small diameter and short average path length of the network in the last two periods. The density of the network is also considerably greater than the previous periods.
- 22.
This might of course be expected given the increase in the number of nodes. However, we tested the behavior of the 1951–1955 co-citation network using a higher threshold for citations (3 citations), which resulted in a network with 168 items. In spite of the fact that the number of nodes were significantly lower than in the previous period, the values indicating the cohesiveness of the field and its internal structure clearly indicate much greater dispersion with respect to the previous period (clusters: 7, density: 0.12, modularity: 0.588).
- 23.
- 24.
Eigenvector centrality is a measure of how influential a node is in the network, giving relevance to the number of edges of each node (degree centrality) combined with how much a node is connected with other high-degree nodes (see, e.g., Newman 2010, 154–156). The table with the 1010 most central words for each cluster in each 5-year period is available at hdl.handle.net/21.11103/dataverse.XIVXCW.
- 25.
We used the Abbyy recognition server for OCR.
- 26.
‘GROBID - GeneRation Of BIbliographic Data’. Accessed 15 December 2019. https://grobid.readthedocs.io/en/latest/Introduction/.
- 27.
More about textacy at ‘Textacy: NLP, before and after SpaCy — Textacy 0.9.1 Documentation’. https://chartbeat-labs.github.io/textacy/. Accessed 15 December 2019. As a base for the network, we merged all texts that are part of one cluster and applied textacy’s function terms_to_semantic_network. Links are created if they are in a window of 10 words. The script we used can be found at https://gitlab.gwdg.de/MPIWG/BZML/exoplanets/toolsfortextmining/blob/master/Analyse Papers.py.
- 28.
The dataset of publications contained in all clusters for all periods of our analysis is available at hdl.handle.net/21.11103/dataverse.XIVXCW.
- 29.
In Table 10 we have not included the peripheral clusters 9, 10, and 11. These clusters were not strongly related to the field of general relativity and appear as a parallel phenomenon. Their presence would have had a great impact on the betweenness centrality measures, as these clusters were connected to the center of the network through very few papers. Excluding them gives a more precise idea of the relevance of papers in connecting the areas of research more related to the renaissance phenomenon.
- 30.
The high centrality of the book (Fock 1959) is certainly meaningful and it deserves further scrutiny. A quick survey leads to the conclusion that it was particularly central in connecting the red cluster on gravitational waves, the yellow cluster on the equations of motions, the purple cluster on cosmology, and the brown cluster on alternative theories of gravitation.
- 31.
This number of cited items slightly changes from slice to slice because of the number of items that have the same number of citations. Since the number of cited items changes enormously in this period (497 in the first slice against 23,907 in the last slice), this method gives an overrepresentation of research agendas in the early periods. For the historical questions we want to address in this chapter, this is not a major problem because we are interested in understanding the passage between periods, rather than a more granular perspective of the variety of research fields after the astrophysical turn occurring in the 1960s (for the astrophysical turn see Chap. 1 in this volume). The co-citation network includes only items that were published less than 20 years before the citing articles and that were cited more than three times in the papers of the general relativity publication space.
- 32.
We did not try to clean the results in any way, by, for example, translating the labels or giving a more appealing label.
- 33.
One might notice some differences between this network and that presented in (Blum et al. 2018, Fig. 4). Such differences depend on different year slices, different thresholds and parameters, and slightly different choice concerning the original dataset of papers. However, the general historical pattern defining the renaissance process and its later transformation into areas in astrophysics and cosmology is largely confirmed.
- 34.
References
Alfvén, Hannes. 1937. Versuch zu einer Theorie über die Entstehung der kosmischen Strahlung. II. Zeitschrift für Physik 107: 579–588. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01339294.
Almeida, Carla Rodrigues. 2020. Stellar equilibrium vs. gravitational collapse. The European Physical Journal H 45: 25–48. https://doi.org/10.1140/epjh/e2019-100045-x.
Alpher, Ralph A., and Robert C. Herman. 1950. Theory of the origin and relative abundance distribution of the elements. Reviews of Modern Physics 22: 153–212. https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.22.153.
Arnowitt, Richard L., Stanley Deser, and Charles W. Misner. 1959. Dynamical structure and definition of energy in general relativity. Physical Review 116: 1322–1330. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.116.1322.
Arnowitt, Richard L., Charles W. Misner, and Stanley Deser. 1961. Coordinate invariance and energy expressions in general relativity. Physical Review 122: 997–1006. https://doi.org/10.1103/physrev.122.997.
Bade, William L., and Herbert Jehle. 1953. An introduction to spinors. Reviews of Modern Physics 25: 714–728. https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.25.714.
Bastian, Mathieu, Sebastien Heymann, and Mathieu Jacomy. 2009. Gephi: An open source software for exploring and manipulating networks. In International AAAI conference on weblogs and social media. https://gephi.org/publications/gephi-bastian-feb09.pdf.
Bavelas, Alex. 1950. Communication patterns in task-oriented groups. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 22: 725–730. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.1906679.
Bergmann, Otto. 1956. Scalar field theory as a theory of gravitation. I. American Journal of Physics 24: 38–42. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.1934129.
Bergmann, Peter G. 1948. Unified field theory with fifteen field variables. Annals of Mathematics 49: 255–264. https://doi.org/10.2307/1969126.
———. 1949. Non-linear field theories. Physical Review 75: 680–685. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.75.680.
Bergmann, Peter G., and Johanna H.M. Brunings. 1949. Non-linear field theories II. Canonical equations and quantization. Reviews of Modern Physics 21: 480–487. https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.21.480.
Bergmann, Peter G., and Ralph Schiller. 1953. Classical and quantum field theories in the Lagrangian formalism. Physical Review 89: 4–16. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.89.4.
Bettencourt, Luís M.A., David I. Kaiser, and Jasleen Kaur. 2009. Scientific discovery and topological transitions in collaboration networks. Journal of Informetrics 3: 210–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joi.2009.03.001.
Bettencourt, Luís M.A., David I. Kaiser, Jasleen Kaur, Carlos Castillo-Chávez, and David E. Wojick. 2008. Population modeling of the emergence and development of scientific fields. Scientometrics 75: 495–518. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-007-1888-4.
Bilby, Bruce Alexander, R. Bullough, Edwin Smith, and John Macnaghten Whittaker. 1955. Continuous distributions of dislocations: A new application of the methods of non-Riemannian geometry. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences 231: 263–273. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1955.0171.
Birkhoff, George D. 1943. Matter, electricity and gravitation in flat space-time. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 29: 231–239. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.29.8.231.
Blackett, Patrick M.S., 1947. The magnetic field of massive rotating bodies. Nature 159: 658–666. https://doi.org/10.1038/159658a0.
Blondel, Vincent D., Jean-Loup Guillaume, Renaud Lambiotte, and Etienne Lefebvre. 2008. Fast unfolding of communities in large networks. Journal of Statistical Mechanics: Theory and Experiment 2008: P10008. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-5468/2008/10/P10008.
Blum, Alexander S., Domenico Giulini, Roberto Lalli, and Jürgen Renn. 2017. Editorial introduction to the special issue “The renaissance of Einstein’s theory of gravitation.”. The European Physical Journal H 42: 95–105. https://doi.org/10.1140/epjh/e2017-80023-3.
Blum, Alexander S., Roberto Lalli, and Jürgen Renn. 2015. The reinvention of general relativity: A historiographical framework for assessing one hundred years of curved space-time. Isis 106: 598–620. https://doi.org/10.1086/683425.
———. 2016. The renaissance of general relativity: How and why it happened. Annalen der Physik 528: 344–349. https://doi.org/10.1002/andp.201600105.
———. 2018. Gravitational waves and the long relativity revolution. Nature Astronomy 2: 534–543. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-018-0472-6.
Bondi, Hermann, M.G.J. van der Burg, and A.W.K. Metzner. 1962. Gravitational waves in general relativity. VII. Waves from Axi-symmetric isolated systems. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences 269: 21–52.
Bondi, Hermann, and Thomas Gold. 1948. The steady-state theory of the expanding universe. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 108: 252–270. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/108.3.252.
Bondi, Hermann. 1952. Cosmology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bonnor, William B. 1983. Obituary: Clark, Gordon-Leonard. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 24: 217.
Bonolis, Luisa. 2017. Stellar structure and compact objects before 1940: Towards relativistic astrophysics. The European Physical Journal H 42: 311–393. https://doi.org/10.1140/epjh/e2017-80014-4.
Born, Max, and Leopold Infeld. 1934. Foundations of the new field theory. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences 144: 425–451. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1934.0059.
Börner, Katy, Jeegar T. Maru, and Robert L. Goldstone. 2004. The simultaneous evolution of author and paper networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101: 5266–5273. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0307625100.
Boyack, Kevin W., and Richard Klavans. 2010. Co-citation analysis, bibliographic coupling, and direct citation: Which citation approach represents the research front most accurately? Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 61: 2389–2404. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.21419.
Boyer-Kassem, Thomas, Conor Mayo-Wilson, and Michael Weisberg, eds. 2017. Scientific collaboration and collective knowledge: New essays. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Brandes, Ulrik. 2001. A faster algorithm for betweenness centrality. The Journal of Mathematical Sociology 25: 163–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/0022250X.2001.9990249.
Brandes, Ulrik, and Dorothea Wagner. 2004. Visone: Analysis and visualization of social networks. In Graph drawing software, ed. Michael Jünger and Petra Mutzel, 321–340. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-18638-7_15.
Brans, C., and R.H. Dicke. 1961. Mach’s principle and a relativistic theory of gravitation. Physical Review 124: 925–935. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.124.925.
Breure, Abraham S.H., and Raphael Heiko Heiberger. 2019. Reconstructing science networks from the past. Journal of Historical Network Research 3: 92–117. https://doi.org/10.25517/jhnr.v3i1.52.
Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan, and Louis R. Henrich. 1942. An attempt to interpret the relative abundances of the elements and their isotopes. The Astrophysical Journal 95: 288–298. https://doi.org/10.1086/144395.
Chen, Chaomei. 2006. CiteSpace II: Detecting and visualizing emerging trends and transient patterns in scientific literature. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 57: 359–377. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.20317.
———. 2017. Science mapping: A systematic review of the literature. Journal of Data and Information Science 2: 1–40. https://doi.org/10.1515/jdis-2017-0006.
Chen, Chaomei, Fidelia Ibekwe-SanJuan, and Jianhua Hou. 2010. The structure and dynamics of cocitation clusters: A multiple-perspective cocitation analysis. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 61: 1386–1409. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.21309.
Chen, Chaomei, and Min Song. 2019. Visualizing a field of research: A methodology of systematic scientometric reviews. PLoS One 14: e0223994. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0223994.
Chiu, Hong-yee 1964. Supernovae, neutrinos, and neutron stars. Annals of Physics 26: 364–410. https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-4916(64)90256-8.
Clemence, G.M. 1947. The relativity effect in planetary motions. Reviews of Modern Physics 19: 361–364. https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.19.361.
Collins, Harry. 2004. Gravity’s shadow: The search for gravitational waves. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Corinaldesi, Ernesto, Achilles Papapetrou, and Rudolf Ernst Peierls. 1951. Spinning test-particles in general relativity. II. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences 209: 259–268. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1951.0201.
De Solla Price, J. Derek. 1965. Networks of scientific papers. Science 149: 510–515. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.149.3683.510.
DeWitt, Bryce S. 1967a. Quantum theory of gravity. I. The canonical theory. Physical Review 160: 1113–1148. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.160.1113.
———. 1967b. Quantum theory of gravity. II. The manifestly covariant theory. Physical Review 162: 1195–1239. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.162.1195.
———. 1967c. Quantum theory of gravity. III. Applications of the covariant theory. Physical Review 162: 1239–1256. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.162.1239.
Dicke, Robert H. 1957. Gravitation without a principle of equivalence. Reviews of Modern Physics 29: 363–376. https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.29.363.
———. 1962a. Implications for cosmology of stellar and galactic evolution rates. Reviews of Modern Physics 34: 110–122. https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.34.110.
———. 1962b. Mach’s principle and invariance under transformation of units. Physical Review 125: 2163–2167. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.125.2163.
Dicke, Robert H., Phillip James Edwin Peebles, P.G. Roll, and D.T. Wilkinson. 1965. Cosmic black-body radiation. The Astrophysical Journal 142: 414–419. https://doi.org/10.1086/148306.
Dickison, Mark E., Matteo Magnani, and Luca Rossi. 2016. Multilayer social networks. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Dirac, Paul Adrien Maurice. 1937. The cosmological constants. Nature 139: 323–323. https://doi.org/10.1038/139323a0.
———. 1938a. A new basis for cosmology. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences 165: 199–208. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1938.0053.
———. 1938b. Classical theory of radiating electrons. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences 167: 148–169. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1938.0124.
———. 1950. Generalized Hamiltonian dynamics. Canadian Journal of Mathematics 2: 129–148. https://doi.org/10.4153/CJM-1950-012-1.
Düring, Marten. 2017. Historical Network Research: Network analysis in the historical disciplines. http://historicalnetworkresearch.org/. Accessed 19 November, 2019.
van Eck, Nees Jan, and Ludo Waltman. 2010. Software survey: VOSviewer, a computer program for bibliometric mapping. Scientometrics 84: 523–538. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-009-0146-3.
———. 2014. CitNetExplorer: A new software tool for analyzing and visualizing citation networks. Journal of Informetrics 8: 802–823. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joi.2014.07.006.
———. 2017. Citation-based clustering of publications using CitNetExplorer and VOSviewer. Scientometrics 111: 1053–1070. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-017-2300-7.
Eddington, Arthur Stanley. 1924. The mathematical theory of relativity. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
———. 1946. Fundamental theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Einstein, Albert. 1916. Die Grundlage der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie. Annalen der Physik 354: 769–822. https://doi.org/10.1002/andp.19163540702.
———. 1917. Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie. Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin): 142–152.
———. 1945. A generalization of the relativistic theory of gravitation. The Annals of Mathematics 46: 578–584. https://doi.org/10.2307/1969197.
———. 1951. The meaning of relativity. 5th ed. London: Methuen.
———. 1953. The meaning of relativity, including the generalization of gravitation theory. 4th ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Einstein, Albert, and Peter Bergmann. 1938. On a generalization of Kaluza’s theory of electricity. Annals of Mathematics 39: 683–701. https://doi.org/10.2307/1968642.
Einstein, Albert, and Leopold Infeld. 1940. The gravitational equations and the problem of motion. II. The Annals of Mathematics 41: 455–464. https://doi.org/10.2307/1969015.
———. 1949. On the motion of particles in general relativity theory. Canadian Journal of Mathematics 1: 209–241. https://doi.org/10.4153/CJM-1949-020-8.
Einstein, Albert, Leopold Infeld, and Banesh Hoffmann. 1938. The gravitational equations and the problem of motion. Annals of Mathematics 39: 65–100.
Einstein, Albert, and Nathan Rosen. 1937. On gravitational waves. Journal of the Franklin Institute 223: 43–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-0032(37)90583-0.
Eisenstaedt, Jean. 1986. La relativité générale à l’étiage: 1925-1955. Archive for History of Exact Sciences 35: 115–185.
Fangerau, Heiner. 2010. Spinning the scientific web: Jacques Loeb (1859–1924) und sein Programm einer internationalen biomedizinischen Grundlagenforschung. Berlin: AKADEMIE VERLAG.
Fermi, Enrico. 1949. On the origin of the cosmic radiation. Physical Review 75: 1169–1174. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.75.1169.
Fock, Vladimir Aleksandrovich. 1959. The theory of space time and gravitation. New York: Pergamon Press.
Freeman, Linton C. 1977. A set of measures of centrality based on betweenness. Sociometry 40: 35–41. https://doi.org/10.2307/3033543.
———. 2004. The development of social network analysis: A study in the sociology of science; Vancouver, BC; North Charleston, S.C.: Empirical Press; Book Surge.
Gamow, George. 1948. The evolution of the universe. Nature 162: 680–682. https://doi.org/10.1038/162680a0.
———. 1949. On relativistic cosmogony. Reviews of Modern Physics 21: 367–373. https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.21.367.
Gamow, George, and Edward Teller. 1939. Energy production in red giants. Physical Review 55: 791–791. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.55.791.
Garfield, Eugene. 2009. From the science of science to Scientometrics: Visualizing the history of science with HistCite software. Journal of Informetrics 3: 173–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joi.2009.03.009.
Gibson, Abraham, Manfred D. Laubichler, and Jane Maienschein. 2019. Focus: Computational history and philosophy of science. Introduction. Isis 110: 497–501.
Girvan, Michelle, and Mark E.J. Newman. 2002. Community structure in social and biological networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99: 7821–7826. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.122653799.
Gödel, Kurt. 1949. An example of a new type of cosmological solutions of Einstein’s field equations of gravitation. Reviews of Modern Physics 21: 447–450. https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.21.447.
Goenner, Hubert. 2004. On the history of unified field theories. Living Reviews in Relativity 7: 2. https://doi.org/10.12942/lrr-2004-2.
———. 2012. Some remarks on the genesis of scalar-tensor theories. General Relativity and Gravitation 44: 2077–2097. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10714-012-1378-8.
———. 2014. On the history of unified field theories. Part II. (ca. 1930–ca. 1965). Living Reviews in Relativity 17: 5. https://doi.org/10.12942/lrr-2014-5.
Goldberg, Joshua N. 1958. Conservation Laws in general relativity. Physical Review 111: 315–320. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.111.315.
Granovetter, Mark S. 1973. The strength of weak ties. American Journal of Sociology 78: 1360–1380.
Gupta, Suraj N. 1952a. Quantization of Einstein’s gravitational field: Linear approximation. Proceedings of the Physical Society. Section A 65: 161–169. https://doi.org/10.1088/0370-1298/65/3/301.
———. 1952b. Quantization of Einstein’s gravitational field: General treatment. Proceedings of the Physical Society. Section A 65: 608–619. https://doi.org/10.1088/0370-1298/65/8/304.
Gutfreund, Hanoch, and Jürgen Renn. 2017. The formative years of relativity: The history and meaning of Einstein’s Princeton lectures. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Harrison, B. Kent, Kip S. Thorne, Masami Wakano, and John Archibald Wheeler. 1965. Gravitation theory and gravitational collapse. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Havas, Peter. 1989. The early history of the problem of motion in general relativity. In Einstein and the history of general relativity, ed. Don Howard and John Stachel. Boston: Birkhäuser.
Hawking, Stephen William. 1971. Gravitational radiation from colliding black holes. Physical Review Letters 26: 1344–1346. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.26.1344.
Hawking, Stephen William, and Roger Penrose. 1970. The singularities of gravitational collapse and cosmology. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences 314: 529–548. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1970.0021.
Herfeld, Catherine, and Malte Doehne. 2018. The diffusion of scientific innovations: A role typology. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A 77: 64–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2017.12.001.
Hlavatý, Václav. 1952. The Einstein connection of the unified theory of relativity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 38: 415–419. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.38.5.415.
Hoffmann, Banesh. 1948. The gravitational, electromagnetic, and vector meson fields and the similarity geometry. Physical Review 73: 30–35. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.73.30.
Hou, Jianhua, Xiucai Yang, and Chaomei Chen. 2018. Emerging trends and new developments in information science: A document co-citation analysis (2009–2016). Scientometrics 115: 869–892. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-018-2695-9.
Hoyle, Fred 1948. A new model for the expanding universe. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 108: 372–382. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/108.5.372.
Hoyle, Fred, William A. Fowler, Geoffrey R. Burbidge, and E. Margaret Burbidge. 1964. On relativistic astrophysics. The Astrophysical Journal 139: 909–928. https://doi.org/10.1086/147825.
Hubble, Edwin. 1937. The observational approach to cosmology. Oxford: The Clarendon Press.
Hubble, Edwin, and Richard C. Tolman. 1935. Two methods of investigating the nature of the nebular redshift. The Astrophysical Journal 82: 302–337. https://doi.org/10.1086/143682.
Infeld, Leopold 1938. Electromagnetic and gravitational radiation. Physical Review 53: 836–841. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.53.836.
Infeld, Leopold, and Alfred Schild. 1949. On the motion of test particles in general relativity. Reviews of Modern Physics 21: 408–413. https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.21.408.
Infeld, Leopold, and P.R. Wallace. 1940. The equations of motion in electrodynamics. Physical Review 57: 797–806. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.57.797.
Isaacson, Richard A. 1968. Gravitational radiation in the limit of high frequency. I. The linear approximation and geometrical optics. Physical Review 166: 1263–1271. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.166.1263.
Jordan, Pascual. 1944. Über die Entstehung der Sterne. I. Grundlagen der Theorie. Physikalische Zeitschrift 45: 183–190.
———. 1947. Erweiterung der projektiven Relativitätstheorie. Annalen der Physik 436: 219–228. https://doi.org/10.1002/andp.19474360409.
———. 1952. Schwerkraft und Weltall: Grundlagen der theoretischen Kosmologie. Braunschweig: Vieweg.
Just, Kurt. 1954. Zur Wahl von Feldgleichungen der projektiven Relativitätstheorie. Zeitschrift für Physik 139: 498–503. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01374558.
Kaiser, David. 2005. Drawing theories apart: The dispersion of Feynman diagrams in postwar physics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
———. 2012. A tale of two textbooks: Experiments in genre. Isis 103: 126–138. https://doi.org/10.1086/664983.
Kaluza, Theodor. 1921. Zum Unitätsproblem der Physik. Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin): 966–972.
Katz, J. Sylvan, and Ben R. Martin. 1997. What is research collaboration? Research Policy 26: 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-7333(96)00917-1.
Kerr, Roy P. 1963. Gravitational field of a spinning mass as an example of algebraically special metrics. Physical Review Letters 11: 237–238. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.11.237.
Khelfaoui, Mahdi, and Yves Gingras. 2019. Physical Review: From the periphery to the center of physics. Physics in Perspective 21: 23–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00016-019-00235-y.
Klavans, Richard, and Kevin W. Boyack. 2017. Which type of citation analysis generates the most accurate taxonomy of scientific and technical knowledge? Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology 68: 984–998. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.23734.
Klein, Oskar. 1926. Quantentheorie und fünfdimensionale Relativitätstheorie. Zeitschrift für Physik 37: 895–906. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01397481.
Kleinberg, Jon M. 1999. Authoritative sources in a hyperlinked environment. Journal of the ACM 46: 604–632. https://doi.org/10.1145/324133.324140.
Kress, Rainer. 1998. Numerical analysis. New York, NY: Springer New York.
Kruskal, Martin D. 1960. Maximal extension of Schwarzschild metric. Physical Review 119: 1743–1745. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.119.1743.
Kursunoglu, Behram. 1952. Einstein’s unified field theory. Proceedings of the Physical Society. Section A 65: 81–83. https://doi.org/10.1088/0370-1298/65/2/301.
Lalli, Roberto. 2017. Building the general relativity and gravitation community during the Cold War. Cham: Springer.
Lalli, Roberto, Riaz Howey, and Dirk Wintergrün. 2020. The dynamics of collaboration networks and the history of general relativity, 1925–1970. Scientometrics 122: 1129–1170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-019-03327-1.
Landau, Lev D., and Evgeny M. Lifshitz. 1951. The classical theory of fields. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley Press.
———. 1962. The classical theory of fields. 2nd ed. Oxford, Reading, MA: Pergamon Press; Addison-Wesley PubCo.
Latour, Bruno. 1987. Science in action: How to follow scientists and engineers through society. Philadelphia: Open University Press.
Laubichler, Manfred D., Jane Maienschein, and Jürgen Renn. 2013. Computational perspectives in the history of science: To the memory of Peter Damerow. Isis 104: 119–130. https://doi.org/10.1086/669891.
———. 2019. Computational history of knowledge: Challenges and opportunities. Isis 110: 502–512. https://doi.org/10.1086/705544.
Lazega, Emmanuel, and Tom A.B. Snijders, eds. 2016. Multilevel network analysis for the social sciences: Theory, methods and applications. Cham: Springer.
Lemaître, Georges. 1997. The expanding universe. General Relativity and Gravitation 29: 641–680. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018855621348.
Lemercier, Claire. 2015. Formal network methods in history: Why and how? In Social networks, political institutions, and rural societies, ed. Georg Fertig, 281–304. Turnhout: Brepols.
Lichnerowicz, André. 1955. Théories relativistes de la gravitation et de l’électromagnétisme; relativité générale et théories unitaires. Paris: Masson.
Lifshitz, Evgeny M., and Isaak M. Khalatnikov. 1963. Investigations in relativistic cosmology. Advances in Physics 12: 185–249. https://doi.org/10.1080/00018736300101283.
Marshakova-Shaikevich, Irena. 1973. System of document connections based on references. Nauchn-Techn.Inform 6: 3–8.
Milne, Edward Arthur. 1935. Relativity, gravitation and world-structure. Oxford: The Clarendon Press.
Misner, Charles W. 1969a. Mixmaster universe. Physical Review Letters 22: 1071–1074. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.22.1071.
———. 1969b. Quantum cosmology. I. Physical Review 186: 1319–1327. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.186.1319.
Misner, Charles W., Kip S. Thorne, and John Archibald Wheeler. 1973. Gravitation. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
Misner, Charles W., and John A. Wheeler. 1957. Classical physics as geometry. Annals of Physics 2: 525–603. https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-4916(57)90049-0.
Møller, Christian. 1952. The theory of relativity. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
———. 1958. On the localization of the energy of a physical system in the general theory of relativity. Annals of Physics 4: 347–371. https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-4916(58)90053-8.
Morris, Steven A., G. Yen, Zheng Wu, and Benyam Asnake. 2003. Time line visualization of research fronts. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 54: 413–422. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.10227.
Mutschke, Peter, and Anabel Quan Haase. 2001. Collaboration and cognitive structures in social science research fields. Towards socio-cognitive analysis in information systems. Scientometrics 52: 487–502. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014256102041.
Nadel, E. 1981. Citation and co-citation indicators of a phased impact of the BCS theory in the physics of superconductivity. Scientometrics 3: 203–221. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02101666.
Newman, Mark E.J. 2003. The structure and function of complex networks. SIAM Review 45: 167–256. https://doi.org/10.1137/S003614450342480.
———. 2010. Networks: An introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Oppenheimer, J. Robert, and H. Snyder. 1939. On continued gravitational contraction. Physical Review 56: 455–459. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.56.455.
Oppenheimer, J. Robert, and G.M. Volkoff. 1939. On massive neutron cores. Physical Review 55: 374–381. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.55.374.
Painter, Deryc T., Manfred Laubichler, and Julia Damerow. 2019. The evolution of evolutionary medicine. To appear in The dynamics of science: Computational frontiers in history and philosophy of science, ed. Grant Ramsey and Andreas De Block. Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh University Press.
Papapetrou, Achilles. 1951. Equations of motion in general relativity. Proceedings of the Physical Society. Section A 64: 57–75. https://doi.org/10.1088/0370-1298/64/1/310.
Papapetrou, Achilles, and Rudolf Ernst Peierls. 1951. Spinning test-particles in general relativity. I. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences 209: 248–258. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1951.0200.
Pauli, Wolfgang. 1941. Relativistic field theories of elementary particles. Reviews of Modern Physics 13: 203–232. https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.13.203.
———. 1958. Theory of relativity. New York: Pergamon Press.
Peebles, Phillip James Edwin. 1965. The black-body radiation content of the universe and the formation of galaxies. The Astrophysical Journal 142: 1317–1326. https://doi.org/10.1086/148417.
———. 2017. Robert Dicke and the naissance of experimental gravity physics, 1957–1967. The European Physical Journal H: 177–259. https://doi.org/10.1140/epjh/e2016-70034-0.
Peirson, B.R. Erick, Erin Bottino, Julia L. Damerow, and Manfred D. Laubichler. 2017. Quantitative perspectives on fifty years of the journal of the history of biology. Journal of the History of Biology 50: 695–751. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-017-9499-2.
Penrose, Roger. 1965. Gravitational collapse and space-time singularities. Physical Review Letters 14: 57–59. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.14.57.
Penzias, Arno Allan, and Robert Woodrow Wilson. 1965. A measurement of excess antenna temperature at 4080 mc/s. The Astrophysical Journal 142: 419–421. https://doi.org/10.1086/148307.
Persson, Olle. 1994. The intellectual base and research fronts of JASIS 1986–1990. Journal of the American Society for Information Science 45: 31–38.
Pirani, Felix A.E. 1956. On the physical significance of the Riemann tensor. Acta Physica Polonica 15: 389–405.
———. 1957. Invariant formulation of gravitational radiation theory. Physical Review 105: 1089–1099. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.105.1089.
Pirani, Felix A.E., and Alfred Schild. 1950. On the quantization of Einstein’s gravitational field equations. Physical Review 79: 986–991. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.79.986.
Pound, Robert V., and Glen A. Rebka. 1959. Gravitational red-shift in nuclear resonance. Physical Review Letters 3: 439–441. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.3.439.
———. 1960. Apparent weight of photons. Physical Review Letters 4: 337–341. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.4.337.
Preiser-Kapeller, Johannes, and Falko Daim, eds. 2015. Harbours and maritime networks as complex adaptive systems. Mainz: Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum.
Renn, Jürgen. 2020. The evolution of knowledge. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Renn, Jürgen, Dirk Wintergrün, Roberto Lalli, Manfred Laubichler, and Matteo Valleriani. 2016. Netzwerke als Wissensspeicher. In Die Zukunft der Wissensspeicher: Forschen, Sammeln und Vermitteln im 21. Jahrhundert, ed. Jürgen Mittelstraß and Ulrich Rüdiger, 35–79. München: UVK Verlagsgesellschaft Konstanz.
Robertson, Howard Percy 1933. Relativistic cosmology. Reviews of Modern Physics 5: 62–90. https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.5.62.
———. 1935. Kinematics and world-structure. The Astrophysical Journal 82: 284–301. https://doi.org/10.1086/143681.
———. 1938. Note on the preceding paper: The two body problem in general relativity. The Annals of Mathematics 39: 101–104. https://doi.org/10.2307/1968715.
Rollinger, Christian, Marten Düring, Martin Stark, and Robert Gramsch. 2017. Editors’ introduction. Journal of Historical Network Research 1: i–vii. https://doi.org/10.25517/jhnr.v1i1.19.
Rosenfeld, Léon 1930. Über die Gravitationswirkungen des Lichtes. Zeitschrift für Physik 65: 589–599. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01391161.
Sachs, Rainer K. 1961. Gravitational waves in general relativity. VI. The outgoing radiation condition. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences 264: 309–338.
Sandage, Allan. 1961. The ability of the 200-INCH telescope to discriminate between selected world models. The Astrophysical Journal 133: 355–392. https://doi.org/10.1086/147041.
Saulson, Peter R. 2011. Josh Goldberg and the physical reality of gravitational waves. General Relativity and Gravitation 43: 3289–3299. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10714-011-1237-z.
Schiff, Leonard I. 1960. Possible new experimental test of general relativity theory. Physical Review Letters 4: 215–217. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.4.215.
Schrödinger, Erwin. 1947. The relation between metric and affinity. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Section A: Mathematical and Physical Sciences 51: 147–150.
Schwarzschild, Karl. 1916. Über das Gravitationsfeld eines Massenpunktes nach der Einsteinschen Theorie. Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin): 189–196.
Schwinger, Julian. 1948. Quantum electrodynamics. I. A covariant formulation. Physical Review 74: 1439–1461. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.74.1439.
———. 1949. Quantum electrodynamics. II. Vacuum polarization and self-energy. Physical Review 75: 651–679. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.75.651.
Small, Henry. 1973. Co-citation in the scientific literature: A new measure of the relationship between two documents. Journal of the American Society for Information Science 24: 265–269. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.4630240406.
———. 1993. Macro-level changes in the structure of co-citation clusters: 1983–1989. Scientometrics 26: 5–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02016789.
Spitzer, Lyman. 1946. The magnetic field of the galaxy. Physical Review 70: 777–778. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.70.777.
Sullivan, D., D. Koester, D.H. White, and R. Kern. 1980. Understanding rapid theoretical change in particle physics: A month-by-month co-citation analysis. Scientometrics 2: 309–319. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02016351.
Synge, John Lighton. 1952. Orbits and rays in the gravitational field of a finite sphere according to the theory of A. N. Whitehead. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences 211: 303–319. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1952.0044.
———. 1960. Relativity: The general theory. Amsterdam; New York: North-Holland.
Takeno, Hyoitiro. 1951. Theory of the spherically symmetric space-times, I: Characteristic system. Journal of the Mathematical Society of Japan 3: 317–329. https://doi.org/10.2969/jmsj/00320317.
Tolman, Richard C. 1934. Relativity, thermodynamics and cosmology. Oxford: The Clarendon Press.
———. 1938. The principles of statistical mechanics. Oxford: The Clarendon Press.
———. 1949. The age of the universe. Reviews of Modern Physics 21: 374–378. https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.21.374.
Tonnelat, Marie-Antoinette 1951. Théorie unitaire affine du champ physique. Journal de Physique et le Radium 12: 81–88. https://doi.org/10.1051/jphysrad:0195100120208100.
Trimble, Virginia. 2017. Wired by Weber. The European Physical Journal H: 261–291. https://doi.org/10.1140/epjh/e2016-70060-5.
Unsöld, Albrecht. 1948. Kernphysik und Kosmologie. Zeitschrift fur Astrophysik 24: 278–305.
Utiyama, Ryoyu. 1956. Invariant theoretical interpretation of interaction. Physical Review 101: 1597–1607. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.101.1597.
Valleriani, Matteo, Florian Kräutli, Maryam Zamani, Alejandro Tejedor, Christoph Sander, Malte Vogl, Sabine Bertram, Gesa Funke, and Holger Kantz. 2019. The emergence of epistemic communities in the Sphaera Corpus. Journal of Historical Network Research 3: 50–91. https://doi.org/10.25517/jhnr.v3i1.63.
Veblen, Oswald. 1933. Projektive Relativitätstheorie. Berlin: Springer.
Walker, Arthur G. 1937. On Milne’s theory of world-structure. Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society 42: 90–127. https://doi.org/10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.90.
Waltman, Ludo, and Nees Jan van Eck. 2012. A new methodology for constructing a publication-level classification system of science. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 63: 2378–2392. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.22748.
Wasserman, Stanley, and Katherine Faust. 1994. Social network analysis: Methods and applications. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
Weber, Joseph. 1961. General relativity and gravitational waves. New York: Interscience Publishers.
———. 1969. Evidence for discovery of gravitational radiation. Physical Review Letters 22: 1320–1324. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.22.1320.
Von Weizsäcker, Carl-Friedrich. 1938. Über Elementumwandlungen in Innern der Sterne II. Physikalische Zeitschrift 39: 633–646.
Wellman, Barry. 1988. Structural analysis. From method and metaphor to theory and substance. In Social structures. A network approach, ed. Barry Wellman and Scott D. Berkowitz, 19–61. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Weyl, Hermann. 1917. Zur Gravitationstheorie. Annalen der Physik 359: 117–145. https://doi.org/10.1002/andp.19173591804.
———. 1929. Gravitation and the electron. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 15: 323–334. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.15.4.323.
Wheeler, John Archibald. 1962. Geometrodynamics. New York: Academic Press.
Wheeler, John Archibald, and Richard Phillips Feynman. 1945. Interaction with the absorber as the mechanism of radiation. Reviews of Modern Physics 17: 157–181. https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.17.157.
———. 1949. Classical electrodynamics in terms of direct interparticle action. Reviews of Modern Physics 21: 425–433. https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.21.425.
Will, Clifford M. 1989. The renaissance of general relativity. In The new physics, ed. Paul Davies, 7–33. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wintergrün, Dirk. 2019. Netzwerkanalysen und semantische Datenmodellierung als heuristische Instrumente für die historische Forschung. Erlangen: Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg.
Wintergrün, Dirk, Roberto Lalli, and Riaz Howey. 2019. History of General Relativity: Data input- Filemaker. https://hdl.handle.net/21.11103/FK2.5XQP2X. Accessed 10 August 2019.
Wray, K. Brad. 2002. The epistemic significance of collaborative research. Philosophy of Science 69: 150–168. https://doi.org/10.1086/338946.
Yang, Chen Ning, and Robert L. Mills. 1954. Conservation of isotopic spin and isotopic gauge invariance. Physical Review 96: 191–195. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.96.191.
Yilmaz, Huseyin. 1958. New approach to general relativity. Physical Review 111: 1417–1426. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.111.1417.
Zitt, M., and E. Bassecoulard. 1994. Development of a method for detection and trend analysis of research fronts built by lexical or cocitation analysis. Scientometrics 30: 333–351. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02017232.
Zwicky, Fritz 1940. Types of novae. Reviews of Modern Physics 12: 66–85. https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.12.66.
Acknowledgments
This research is supported by Department 1 of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science and by the Berlin Center for Machine Learning (www.bzml.de) (01IS18037), funded by the Federal Ministry for Education and Research of Germany. This research would not have been possible without the institutional support and intellectual engagement of the director of Dept. 1, Jürgen Renn. Earlier results of this research have been discussed with many colleagues, including Alexander Blum, Jürgen Jost, Manfred Laubichler, Matteo Valleriani, as well as the participants of the International Workshop on Graphs, Networks and Digital Humanities in Bucharest, the Network Science in the Humanities workshop at the Max Planck Institute for Mathematics in Leipzig, and the Historical Network Research panel at the Sunbelt 2018 Conference, Utrecht. We are wholeheartedly grateful to them all for the many insightful comments we have received.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Appendices
Appendix 1
Comparison of items’ betweenness centralities in the semiotic network (Table 17 )
Appendix 2
Comparison of items’ closeness centralities in the semiotic network (Table 18 )
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Lalli, R., Howey, R., Wintergrün, D. (2020). The Socio-Epistemic Networks of General Relativity, 1925–1970. In: Blum, A.S., Lalli, R., Renn, J. (eds) The Renaissance of General Relativity in Context. Einstein Studies, vol 16. Birkhäuser, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50754-1_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50754-1_2
Publisher Name: Birkhäuser, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-50753-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-50754-1
eBook Packages: Physics and AstronomyPhysics and Astronomy (R0)