Abstract
This chapter discusses treaty law and soft law addressing the human rights responsibilities of non-state actors and of NGOs, and in particular, how they relate to the human right to reparative justice. It provides a definition of reparative justice based on the UN Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to Remedy and Reparation with their five core principles—restitution, compensation, rehabilitation, satisfaction, and guarantees of non-repetition—and examines the meaning of each of these principles. It discusses case law from the Inter-American Court of Human Rights that grounds reparative justice obligations in international human rights law. It discusses how the Universal Declaration of Human Rights provides soft law guidance affirming the social and moral responsibilities of non-state actors including NGOs to respect and fulfill human rights. It discusses how legally binding UN treaty law affirms the right to reparative justice. It examines voluntary frameworks for NGO ethical and human rights accountability such as the Code of Conduct of the International Red Cross and their limitations of efficacy and reliability.
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Notes
- 1.
UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights. http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/, Article 8 (see note 32 in Chap. 1).
- 2.
Permanent Court of International Justice Chorzow Factory Case. http://www.icj-cij.org/pcij/series-a.php?p1=9&p2=1
- 3.
The Basic Principles were affirmed by the Commission on Human Rights, Resolution 2005/35 and the Economic and Social Council Resolution 2005/30 in addition to the UN General Assembly’s approval of the Principles in Resolution 60/147 of December 16, 2005.
- 4.
UN Nairobi Declaration on Women and Girls’ Right to a Remedy and Reparation.
- 5.
UN Basic Principles on Remedy (see note 5 in Chap. 1).
- 6.
UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.
http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx, Article 39
- 7.
UN Convention Against Torture.
http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CAT.aspx, Article 14.
- 8.
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/ccpr.aspx, Article 2.
- 9.
UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CERD.aspx, Article 6.
- 10.
African Charter of Human and People’s Rights.
http://www.achpr.org/instruments/achpr/, Article 7.
- 11.
American Convention on Human Rights.
http://www.oas.org/dil/treaties_B-32_American_Convention_on_Human_Rights.htm, Article 25.
- 12.
Council of Europe Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms.
http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/en/treaties/html/005.htm, Article 13.
- 13.
At present, Rwanda is not a signatory. http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/OPCESCR.aspx
- 14.
International Criminal Court Trust Fund for Victims.
- 15.
Gerald L. Neuman, ‘Bi-Level Remedies for Human Rights Violations’ (2014) 55 Harvard International Law Journal. For more on the role of regional courts in the enforcement of reparative justice see:
Thomas M. Antkowiak, ‘Remedial Approaches to Human Rights Violations: The Inter-American Court of Human Rights and Beyond’ (2008) 46 Columbia Journal of Transnational Law.
Thomas M. Antkowiak, ‘An Emerging Mandate for International Criminal Courts: Victim Centered Remedies and Restorative Justice’ (2011) 47 Stanford Journal of International Law.
- 16.
Gina Donoso, ‘Inter-American Court of Human Rights Reparations Judgments: Strengths and Challenges for a Comprehensive Approach.’ http://www.corteidh.or.cr/tablas/r24577.pdf
Bridget Mayeux and Justin Mirabal, ‘Collective and Moral Reparations in the Inter-American Court of Human Rights’. http://www.utexas.edu/law/clinics/humanrights/work/HRC_F09_CollectiveReparations.pdf
- 17.
De Greiff, Pablo, Handbook of Reparations (Oxford 2008), 472.
- 18.
See De Greiff (see note 51 in Chap. 2) 451–472 and case law in bibliography. The European Court of Human Rights has also ruled in support of reparations. See the bibliography for relevant cases.
- 19.
Ibid.
- 20.
Velasquez Rodriguez vs. Honduras, judgment on reparations, July 12, 1989.
Inter-American Court of Human Rights
Velasquez Rodriguez v Honduras
- 21.
Ibid.
- 22.
Hague Conventions.
https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/ihl/INTRO/195
Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocols.
https://www.icrc.org/en/war-and-law/treaties-customary-law/geneva-conventions
- 23.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/, UDHR.
- 24.
Ibid.
- 25.
Andrew Clapham, Human Rights Obligations of Non-State Actors (Oxford University Press 2006). 228.
- 26.
Ibid.
UDHR.
- 27.
Clapham (supra note 25 in this chapter) 228.
- 28.
David Weissbrodt and Maria Kruger refer to Theodore Meron’s argument that certain rights protected by the Universal Declaration do indeed reflect customary international law. These include: the ban on genocide, slavery, murder, forced disappearance, torture, arbitrary arrest and detention, and systematic racial discrimination.
Weissbrodt and Kruger in Alston (see note 28 in Chap. 1) 1. Weissbrodt and Kruger refer to Theodore Meron, Human Rights and Humanitarian Norms as Customary Law (Clarendon Press 1989).
- 29.
UN Charter. http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/preamble.shtml
See Articles 1, 55, and 56.
- 30.
- 31.
Ibid.
- 32.
General Assembly resolutions and declarations are considered soft law.
- 33.
UN Basic Principles and Guidelines on Development Based Evictions and Displacements. http://www.ohchr.org/documents/issues/housing/guidelines_en.pdf
108
- 34.
Article 4 of the 2000 Cotonou Agreement between the European Union and African, Caribbean, and Pacific Group of States “recognizes the complementary role of and potential for contributions by non-State actors to the development process.” Alston (see note 27 in Chap. 1) 4.
- 35.
Ibid.
- 36.
Jochnick (see note 8 in Chap. 1) 63. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/ccpr.aspx
http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CESCR.aspx
- 37.
Reinisch (see note 14 in Chap. 1) 86.
- 38.
Reinisch (see note 14 in Chap. 1) 71.
- 39.
Clapham, supra note 25 in this chapter.
- 40.
Reinisch (see note 14 in Chap. 1) 86.
- 41.
UN Human Rights Commission Procedures. http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/svaw/law/un/enforcement/1503.htm
- 42.
Recent complaints made to the Council against non-state actors include complaints against ISIS in Iraq, A/HRC/28/18 and human rights violations by non-state actor militias in Mali, A/HRC/28/83.
Human Rights Council Sessions and Complaint Procedures. http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/ComplaintProcedure/Pages/Resolutions.aspx
http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/Session28/Pages/ListReports.aspx
- 43.
Human Rights Council Session Reports. http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/Session28/Pages/ListReports.aspx
A/HRC/28/77.
Recommendations of the Forum on Minority Issues at its seventh session: Preventing and addressing violence and atrocity crimes targeted against minorities. (25 and 26 November 2014).
- 44.
T. Jeffrey Scott in C. Welch (ed), NGOs and Human Rights: Promise and Performance (University of Pennsylvania Press 2001), 208.
- 45.
Ibid.
- 46.
Ibid.
- 47.
Scott (see note 44 in this chapter) 209.
- 48.
Red Cross Code of Conduct. http://www.ifrc.org/en/publications-and-reports/code-of-conduct/
- 49.
Ibid.
- 50.
Accountability Charter. http://www.ingoaccountabilitycharter.org/
Its members include some of the largest and most reputable development agencies, including but not limited to: CARE, Oxfam, Action Aid, Caritas, Save the Children, PLAN, World Vision, and SOS Children’s Villages.
- 51.
Ibid.
- 52.
Ibid.
- 53.
Ibid.
- 54.
Ibid.
- 55.
Ibid.
- 56.
Ibid.
- 57.
CCIC Code of Ethics. http://www.ccic.ca/_files/en/about/001_code_ethics_operational_standards_e.pdf
- 58.
Clapham (supra note 25 in this chapter) 314.
- 59.
See www.thesphereproject.org for the Humanitarian Charter. The Sphere Project appears to have been eclipsed by the larger scale subsequent efforts of NGOs to self-regulate themselves in incorporating human rights law rather than exclusively humanitarian law.
- 60.
Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness. http://www.oecd.org/dac/effectiveness/45827300.pdf
- 61.
Paris Declaration Aid Effectiveness. http://www.oecd.org/dac/effectiveness/45827311.pdf
- 62.
The Paris Principles (see note 34 in Chap. 2).
- 63.
For a critique of the Ruggie Principles and their limitations, see Ivar Kolstad, ‘Human Rights and Positive Corporate Duties: The Importance of Corporate-State Interaction’ (2012) 21 Business Ethics: A European Review. Kolstad argues that the Ruggie Principles are too vague and do not hold corporations sufficiently accountable for respecting human rights and for applying pressure on governments to respect IHRL.
- 64.
UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, http://business-humanrights.org/en/un-guiding-principles/related-initiatives
The Principles were a result of a lengthy process of development by John Ruggie in consultation with governments, corporations, academics, NGOs, and a broad cross-section of civil society between 2005 and 2011 when Ruggie served as UN Special Representative on Business and Human Rights.
- 65.
Ibid.
- 66.
UN Norms on Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations, http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/business/norms-Aug2003.html
- 67.
‘Statement on Behalf of a Group of Countries at the 24rd [sic] Session of the Human Rights Council’
- 68.
- 69.
Paris Principles (see note 34 in Chap. 2).
http://www.oecd.org/dac/effectiveness/parisdeclarationandaccraagendaforaction.htm
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Schimmel, N. (2020). Treaty Law for States, Soft Law Addressing Non-State Actors, and the Human Rights Responsibilities of NGOs. In: Advancing International Human Rights Law Responsibilities of Development NGOs. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50270-6_3
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