Abstract
Nepal is a melting pot of multi-ethnic, multi-religious, and multilingual groups. All the information available on Nepal’s demography for this study pertains to the old governance, such as the country’s five development regions. Nepal has recently been federated into 7 provinces, 77 districts, and 753 local level units on the basis of demography and geography.
This chapter first analyzes demographic information based on the erstwhile development regions; then, towards the end of the chapter, it integrates the contemporary demographic information with the new federal structure in order to incorporate the chapter’s contemporary internal, regional “structuration.”
This chapter elucidates the complexities and contextual specificities of demographic dynamics and population-environment relationships in a number of societal domains including caste/ethnicity, federalism, language, religion, migration/brain drain, and remittances. This chapter explores the ways in which demographers and other social scientists have sought to understand the relationships that occur in a full range of population dynamic changes and environmental changes that now characterize contemporary Nepal. In addition, it also explains how ecosystem services have been deteriorating in Nepal with many working-age people out-migrating each day to acquire jobs that provide them and their families back home with remittances. Also explained are the ways in which this trend of emigration distorting the traditional families’ social cohesion and how various government policies and programs have been ineffective to address the resultant population-environmental dilemmas. This chapter serves as the preliminary foundation for the remaining chapters that follow in order to link various demographic issues with the location-specific socioeconomic conditions and environment.
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- 1.
Several changes took place in Nepal over the past four decades. In the processes of these changes, various catchy slogans were raised promising to reduce social and economic inequality, narrowing the gap between the poor and the rich, and providing social justices in a transparent manner. The Nepali Congress Party followed the principles of inclusive development with the people at the center of development process led by its founding leader BP Koirala since the 1950s. Between 1990 and 1995 and between 1996 and 2005, the CPN-UML and UCPN (Maoist) groups, respectively, launched movements to further the agenda of communist parties. These movements brought mass consciousness and raised public expectations. Twenty-one governments were formed between 1990 and 2016 and have brought several ambitious policies and programs aimed at improving the living conditions of people. CPN-UML once tried to uphold the principle of socialism by introducing old-age allowance in the late 1990s and “one family one job” in 2016. However, unemployment rate is over 40%. Many health and educational sectors are under the strong grip of private sectors. The majority of the educational institutions in the private sectors are run by the political cadres of the ruling Communist Party. There have been several changes in the public schools systems, however, at a slow pace as compared to the private sector. The average scores in mathematics, sciences, and English among students of public schools are very low as compared to the private schools.
- 2.
Brain drain refers to the emigration (out-migration) of knowledgeable, well-educated, and skilled professionals from their home country to another country seeking various opportunities.
- 3.
Remittance contribution has increased from 12% of the GDP in 2004 to 30% of the GDP in 2014. The proportion of households receiving remittances has also increased from 32% in 2004 to above 60% in 2014. Remittance contributes 35% of the total household income. The highest inflows of remittances have been reported from the Province 1 (Eastern Development Region), followed by the Central (Provinces 2 and 3), Western (Province 4 and 5), and, finally, Far-Western (Province 6) and Midwestern Development (Province 7) Regions. The Far-Western and Midwestern Development Regions received the largest amount of remittances from India. Remittances are increasingly the most direct, immediate, and significant contributions to the livelihoods of the rural communities throughout the country.
- 4.
GNI per capita (formerly GNP per capita) is the gross national income, converted to US dollars using the World Bank Atlas method, divided by the midyear population. GNI is the sum of values added by all resident producers plus any product taxes (less subsidies). It does not include primary income (compensation of employees and property income) from abroad. This applies a conversion factor that averages the exchange rate for a given year and the two preceding years, adjusted for differences in rates of inflation for different countries.
- 5.
In Nepal, each year 600 people die due to a lack of treatment, and 800 people die due to disease and accidents. According to the microeconomic studies, Nepal needs to set aside $40 per person but is only able to set aside $11 per person for treatment. The government needs to allocate at least 10% of the total country’s budget to the heath sector, but it only allocated about 5% of the total budget in recent years. The number of private hospitals is increasing in Nepal, but 60% are located in the urban centers and Kathmandu Valley. From each year’s budget allocated for the health sector, almost 72% goes to salaries and allowances of health-care workers, and only 28% goes to infrastructures and medicine. On average, one Nepali receives $3.48 for medicine.
- 6.
The Youth Development Index (YDI) is a composite index of 18 indicators that collectively measure multidimensional progress on youth development. Nepal has 40.35% of 16–40 age cohort, and it ranks at 77th position in Global Youth Development Index (YDI) and 63rd/140 in the Human Development Index (HDI).
- 7.
The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) revealed that between 13,000 and 17,000 Nepali women are trafficked each year for various reasons. Generally, indigenous and Dalit women belonging to socially, politically, and economically backward communities often fall prey to traffickers because they grow up in poverty. Due to poverty and lack of proper conditions, women can be easily lured with false promises. Though Nepal is also one of the signatories among 189 countries of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995) to actively improve women’s rights, most women and girls in Nepal are still being treated poorly because of their gender. Child marriages are still practiced, and the trafficking of young girls has become a growing business. According to the new constitution of 2015, many women experience discrimination in all levels of political units despite the provision for the 33% of women’s representation in the Constitution.
- 8.
In Nepal, the overall poverty level was 65% in 2006; 42% in 2010; and 28.5% in 2014. The multidimensional poverty index was 59% in 2006, 39 in 2011, and 29 in 2014. About 7% of the urban and 33% of the rural population suffer from multidimensional poverty. According to the 2017 survey, about 8.5 million people were below the abject poverty line. Even today, about 21.8% of the total population is living below the poverty line, but after the economic blockade of India in 2072–2073 (2015–2016), the poverty level increased to 25%. This poverty line was determined based on the survey sample of 54,000 people from 12,000 households. The survey took various factors into account, such as health, education, income, infant mortality rate, schooling age, use of energy, cleanliness, drinking water, house floor, and roof.
- 9.
Tibeto-Burman include Mongols coming from East Asia, especially from Tibet.
- 10.
Caucasian people migrated from the broad isthmus located between the Black and the Caspian Seas, traversed by a great chain of mountains, interminable plains, known as the Northern Caucasus, or Ciscaucasia, merging imperceptibly into the steppes of the Don and the Volga of former USSR.
- 11.
Caste is a fixed social identity that adheres to a certain person or family, whereas ethnic identity refers to a large body of people with a common collective cultural experience. Though culture and identity are both constantly evolving, there is a persistent interconnectedness between caste and ethnicity in Nepal.
- 12.
According to the Interim Constitution of 2007, “any person whose father or mother was a citizen of Nepal at his or her birth” is a Nepali citizen by descent. “A woman of foreign nationality who is married to a Nepali citizen” would get a naturalized citizenship. A son/daughter born to “a woman citizen of Nepal married to a foreign citizen” would get naturalized citizenship if she/he had permanently resided in Nepal. According to the new constitution of 2015, a person whose “father or mother” was a citizen of Nepal at the time of his/her birth and who has permanent domicile in Nepal gets citizenship by descent. A child of a citizen by birth before the commencement of the Nepal Constitution of 2015 will acquire citizenship by descent when she/he grows up if “both her/his father and mother are Nepali citizens” [Article 11 (3)]. This means that either of the parents could (and should) start the process of acquiring citizenship after they are married, if she/he is of foreign origin. A person eligible for citizenship by descent can obtain a citizenship certificate in the name of “his/her mother or father” (Article 12). Every citizen, whether by descent, birth, or naturalization, is entitled to all civil and political rights. She/he can vote, compete for government jobs, contest elections, become a parliamentarian, conduct business, and buy land and property. Naturalization means that the person is a new entrant to Nepal. The condition of naturalization applies for only one generation. The next generation gets their citizenship by descent. In India, the citizenship procedures are no different. For example, India’s Citizenship Act (1955) allows a foreigner to get citizenship certificate to a person who marries an Indian via registration after 7 years of permanently residing in India. Article (7) of Nepal-India’s 1950 treaty confers preferential treatment to citizens of one country living in another country. This article states “The Governments of India and Nepal agree to grant, on a reciprocal basis, to the nationals of one country in the territories of the other, the same privileges in the matter of residence, ownership of property, participation in trade and commerce, movement, and other privileges of a similar nature.” Based on the 1950 treaty, millions of Nepali and Indians are working, living, and doing business both in India and Nepal. When it comes to citizenship, a Nepali is also considered a foreigner in India. A Nepali wishing to acquire Indian citizenship must renounce his/her Nepali citizenship first. Holding dual citizenship is illegal in Nepal as of writing this manuscript.
- 13.
Muslims brought magnificent artistic skills to Nepal. In the erstwhile palace, they worked as spiritual healers. They added a new and modern dimension to Nepal’s military and weaponry—they made cartridges and taught the art of horse-riding to Nepali soldiers. Nepali rulers not only gave them freedom of religion but also the resources to practice their religion. Historian Ramesh Kumar Dhungel wrote that “Pratap Malla gave them land near Ghantaghar (which lay outside the city at that time) to build a mosque and graveyard (kabristan).” They constructed a masjid in the same location where Kashmiri Jame Masjid lies today. Their tombs rest inside the mosque. When Prithivi Narayan Shah conquered the Kathmandu Valley and made it the capital of unified Nepal, he expelled the Christians but allowed Muslims to stay in Nepal to do trade with Tibet and India. Historian Dhungel also wrote that as the city expanded, Rana Prime Minister Bir Shumsher prohibited using the land near Ghantaghar as a graveyard and instead allocated land in Swayambhu. The Ranas had made it compulsory for Muslims to wear red Turkish caps to show their identities. During the time of Rana rule, Muslims were not allowed to practice religion freely. The use of amplifiers during namaz reading was prohibited. After the abolition of Rana’s rule, Hindus’ and Muslims’ decorum started coexisting side by side without any conflicts. In Nepal, both Sunnis and Shias are maintaining social harmony among themselves. Previously, Kashmiri Jame Masjid belongs to Sunnis and Nepali Jame Masjid belongs to Shias Muslims, but now both of them share these Masjids together. Today, Sunni Muslims are in the majority in the Kathmandu Valley. A lot of changes took place after 2008 when Nepal was declared a secular state. Certain fears still exist in the minority Muslim population in Nepal. In 2004, there was an incident during which 12 Nepali persons were murdered by an Islamic terrorist group in Iraq. After this incidence, Nepali Muslims were treated very poorly in Kathmandu and across the country. A mob stormed into and vandalized the two masjids in the Kathmandu Valley and set them on fire. Though much has been said about multi-culturalism and social inclusion, social economic indicators suggest that 4.4% of the Muslim communities of Nepal remain marginalized. Adult literacy is at 30% among the Muslim community, which is far below the national average of 63%. Their presence in the social, economic, and political spheres of Nepali society is relatively low.
- 14.
Malla Kings promoted translation of literature by Maithil scholars into Newari (Sah 2017). Jyotriswara’s Dhurtsamagam and Vidyapati’s Puruspariksha are still available in Newari archives. Gangadhar Jha and his father were ministers in King Jay Prakash Malla’s Court (Sah 2017). However, King Prithivi Narayan Shah being afraid of Nepal’s devolution at the hand of British-India colluded with Khas-Arya businesspersons and expelled businessmen from the south to monopolize Tibet-Madhes trade (Sah 2017). Both Madheshis and Pahadis have been living in harmony. On April 2015, a deadly earthquake hit Nepal that killed over 10,000 people. Both the Madheshi and Pahadis worked together to overcome this tragic incidence. Likewise, there are several incidences when Madheshis and Pahadis have worked together. Only a few politicians who see their future in their electoral constituencies by creating fissures in the Nepali communities often create political instabilities.
- 15.
In 2008, the Nepali Government listed 19,059 “Freed Haliyas” in 12 districts (i.e., Achham, Baitadi, Bajhang, Bajura, Dadeldhura, Darchula, Doti, Humla, Jajarkot, Kailali, Kanchanpur, and Surkhet) and distributed identity cards to only 50% of the freed Kamaiyas, as many of them needed further verifications. Of these groups, 98% were from the Dalits. Freed Haliyas were classified into four categories: (a) red card are issued to those who have no land and house; (b) brown card to those who have a house but no land; (c) green card to those who have land, but no house; and (d) white card to those who have a house and land. The Government initially had decided to implement a rehabilitation program after the completion of verification of all listed Freed Haliyas and distribute identity cards to all those who had been verified. These “Freed” Haliyas often get threats from their former “masters” to repay loans they have taken, and some have resorted back to their old “masters” for making their living, and some are out-migrated. The Nepal Government is a signatory of two international conventions concerning forced or compulsory labor, i.e., Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29) and Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (No. 105). The government has promised to provide two kathas (1 katha = 338.57 square meters) of land in the Tarai and three ropanis (1 ropani = 508.78 square meters) of land in the Hills but has only provided 7–8 dhurs (1 dhur = 16.929 square meters) in the Tarai and two anas (1 ana = 16.856 square meters) in the Hills, providing $950 per family despite promising $2500 at the beginning. These plans are implemented in six districts, namely, Achham, Darchula, Humla, Kailali, Kanchanpur, and Surkhet.
- 16.
Between 1995 and 2014, over 3.47 million Nepali out-migrated for foreign employment, of which 3.3 million were men. About 700,000 Nepali are working in Malaysia, and many of them are at risk. In 2014 alone, a Nepali person died each day in Malaysia. Such deaths generally result from operating dangerous equipment in factories or other related causes.
- 17.
Some of the migrants who returned home with skills have started commercial farming. These returnees have been the sources of money, knowledge, skills, and inspiration for commercial farming. Since there is a competition for farmland in Nepal, the government may enact the Land Lease Act for promoting agribusiness operations without acquisition of tenancy rights. Migrant households keen to invest remittances in agriculture but without access to sufficient land may improve their land access through long-term leases. Purchasing of agricultural land from remittances has been a common practice across many countries. In Bangladesh, around 15% of the remittances sent by migrants from the Middle East went to land purchases in 2014. Similarly, a survey of over 700 households in rural Pakistan revealed that remittances have been used for the acquisition of farmland. In the Indian state of Kerala, a larger proportion of migrant households bought agricultural land from remittance incomes. However, the link between remittances and their uses in agriculture, including access to land, are extremely complex and likely to vary considerably from a place to place, community to community, and country to country, based on sociocultural factors and the local economic and ecological contexts. The major constraint is the lack of adequate supporting infrastructures, such as limited capacity buildings and training facilities, poor access to markets due to a lack of agricultural roads in the production areas, a lack of market information centers in rural areas, and inadequate storage facilities in the vicinities of the markets and production areas.
- 18.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs sets up Brain Gain Center. https://thehimalayantimes.com/kathmandu/ministry-of-foreign-affairs-sets-up-brain-gain-centre/. Accessed January 26, 2020.
- 19.
Nepal’s constitutional history goes back to 1948 BS Nepal Sarkar Bidhanik Kanoon promulgated by Padma Shumsher Rana. Though the first constitution should have been credited for democratization of the country’s ruling system, it fell short of several checks and balances and, thus, remained incomplete. The Interim Government of Nepal Act, 1951, enacted after the Revolution of 1951, created the Pradhan Nyayalaya (Supreme Court) and enlisted the fundamental rights of the citizens. However, the Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal 1959 had provisions for the general election for the first time in Nepal’s history with the introducing of a multiparty representative democracy.
- 20.
Twelve points agreements include (1) abolition of the autocratic monarchy and establishment of absolute democracy; (2) the restoration of the dissolved parliament with the complete authority of holding elections to a constituent assembly; (3) establishment of permanent peace and ending of the armed conflict; (4) keeping the armed Maoist force and the royal army under the supervision of the United Nations or any other reliable international supervision, to conclude the elections in a free and fair manner and accept the result of the elections; (5) institutional commitment to the democratic norms under the competitive multiparty system of governance, civil liberties, human rights, the concept of the rule of law, and fundamental rights; and (6) peacefully, returning all the confiscated lands to the actual owners and, respectfully, allowing all the people to return and own their properties who were displaced during the insurgency period (1996–2006) without any hindrance. (7) The CPN (Maoist) has expressed commitment not to repeat mistakes through self-criticism and self-evaluation of past mistakes. Likewise, the seven political parties expressed commitment not to repeat the mistakes of the past which were committed while in parliament and in government. (9) Fully respect the norms and values of human rights and press freedom. Actively boycott the call of unfair election tactics of the king. (10) Firm commitment to protect the independence, sovereignty, geographical integrity of the country, and national unity. Maintain friendly relationships with all countries of the world and good neighbor relationship with neighboring countries, especially with India and China. (11) Urge the civil society, professional organizations, various wings of parties, people of all communities and regions, press, and intellectuals to actively involve to make forward-looking social changes and (12) strong commitment to investigate any unfair incidences of the past that took lives of many innocent people and take actions if found guilty and to make such actions transparent.
- 21.
Nepal’s number of administrative districts have been changed over time from 10 to 77; for example, 1816–1847 (10); 1885–1901(32: hills 22 and Tarai 12); 1901–1951 (35); 1960–1990 (14 zones and 75 districts); and 2015 (2 districts were added by dividing Nawalparasi and Rukum into 2 districts).
- 22.
In Switzerland, there are 26 cantons (provinces), each with an overwhelming majority of people who practice 1 religion or speak 1 language. Only 4 of the 26 cantons are multilingual. In northern Belgium, there is a majority of Dutch-speaking people and, in southern Belgium, a majority of French-speaking people. Also, in India, each state (province) has a majority of one language group; for example, in Karnataka, 65% of the total state population speaks Kannada, and in Gujarat, 75% of the population speaks Gujarati.
- 23.
Amended Article 84 states that while delineating constituencies for the House of Representatives, the “population” will be made the primary factor and the “geography” as the secondary factor. Article 286 ensures that each district of a province must have “at least one electoral constituency” regardless of its population size.
- 24.
People were asked to mandatorily implement family planning. In some cases, security personal were authorized to rigorously inquire the family status of young males and females involved in various crimes. Some were forced to vasectomize. In some instances, youths involved in rape cases were castrated.
- 25.
Following the UN Resolution (A/RES/70/1) entitled Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development planned for people, planet, and prosperity, Nepal was recognized as having a tremendous potential to utilize the collective powerhouse of 52% of the 26.8 million total populations between the ages of 16 and 40 years into creative endeavors. Each year, over 400,000 youth enter the labor market in Nepal. As the public sector industries are too small to offer jobs to this growing mass, many youth engage in community developmental activities through the NGOs. They recently opened the federation of youth NGOs, which represents 50 of Nepal’s 77 districts. Thousands of youth volunteered in rescue and recovery efforts in the aftermath of 2015’s deadly earthquakes. With proper investment in their education and available opportunities, these young people’s ideas, ideals, and innovations could give impetus to the sustainable development goals (SDGs) and transform the future. Nepal, along with 192 other countries, is one of the signatories of the UN 2030 SDG’s Agenda.
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Bhattarai, K., Conway, D. (2021). Demography, Caste/Ethnicity, Federalism, and Socioeconomic Conditions in Relation to Contemporary Environment. In: Contemporary Environmental Problems in Nepal. Advances in Asian Human-Environmental Research. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50168-6_2
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