Keywords

1 Introduction

“Industrial Design”, which was the first design journal in Taiwan, has been published for over fifty years. The magazine contains the most complete history of the design industry in Taiwan, from the development of the industry and technology to how they affect the field worldwide. It also covers the transformation of the design industry from mechanized to Human Factors Engineering.

Walter Gropius established the first design school, Bauhaus, in Germany in 1919. The school was founded based on the educational theory “the fusion of arts and techniques”; it was a crucial starting point for Taiwanese modern design in 1960s [9] when government set policies and brought back design courses and ideas from abroad. Nongovernmental group also started to publish reading material to express their ideas and values. Based on this background, scholars from America, Japan and Germany ran five “Industrial Design Training” workshops in Taiwan between 1963 and 1967. At the same time, our government sent skilled students abroad for further studies and gave grants to schools which set up related programmes; later on, these became the solid foundation of Taiwanese Industrial Design. [19]. This research investigates the magazine which recorded the Taiwanese Industrial Design field for over half of a century and focused on the comparison between development and the cultural content of Taiwanese Design Industry under the influence of culture, research, education and industry. Figure 1 is the structure of this research.

Fig. 1.
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Framework of the study

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2 Research Purpose

Visual Design is the face of a product. It shapes and creates the expression of the product [10]. This research sampling analyzed the visual design of “Industrial Design” journal. The design elements of the magazine are quite similar to Bauhaus. The research used the four basic visual design aspects: font, image content, color choice and format design as the criteria for the analysis and compared them with classic Bauhaus posters. We aimed to understand the influence of Bauhaus on Taiwanese visual design in the 1960s, and in addition to contribute to the development of the historical narrative of Taiwanese modern design.

The purposes of research are as followed:

  1. 1.

    To understand the influence of Bauhaus on Taiwanese visual design in 1960s from the general public’s point of view.

  2. 2.

    To understand the different versions and understandings of the public toward modern visual design in order to provide a reference for the design field.

3 Literature Review

3.1 “Industrial Design” Magazine and the Development of Taiwanese Industrial Design Education

It has been over half a century since the first issue of “Industrial Design” was published. Reading the magazine is like walking through the history of the development of Taiwanese Industrial Design Education. The cover for each volume was carefully chosen to represent the evolution of Taiwanese industrial design themes [10]. From the works on the covers, we can gauge the changing tastes in product design, which include the focus on operational functions; user friendly design; the combination of creativities and technology development; beautifying the exteriors etc. On the earlier volumes, they used dots, lines, surfaces to create aesthetically pleasing images on white covers while on the later magazines, photographical techniques were largely used.

After the photographical techniques were introduced, a design work would be used as a cover image. Within these works, some were based on human factor engineering, some were modeling-focused and some were highly culture oriented. For the more recent volumes, computer aided drawing once again took over from photography and 3D images have become the mainstream. To sum up, from 2D images to photography and from photography to 3D design, the changing styles on the magazine covers undoubtedly represent the transformation of techniques and design in Taiwan.

“Industrial Design” was first published by Ming Zhi Technical College in 1968. The government invited foreign scholars to the college to give speeches and teach course, for example the German scholar Frank Sander, who visited Ming Zhi in 1968; and Japanese scholar, Hiroshi Ohchi who held the workshop “Basic Design” in the same year [5, 18]. The covers for the first ten volumes of “Industrial Design” were colorful and focused on geometric design, which indicated the influence of German and Japanese scholars. In addition, some of these Japanese scholars studied in Germany and were introduced to Bauhaus during that time: we can say that the design education in the early Taiwan was highly influenced by Japan and Germany. This is also the reason why this research used the first ten issues of the journal: to study how Bauhaus extended its influence over Taiwanese visual design.

3.2 How Did the Bauhaus Effects Taiwanese Design Industry

Early in the 20th century, Taiwan was still a colony of Japan. Most Taiwanese artist were educated by the Japanese system; therefore, they imported the most advance craft art education and resources from Japan [20].

After the Second World War, financial and design industries developed quickly in Taiwan. Bauhaus came to the country at the same time, which started the modernization of Taiwanese design [6]. Bauhaus changed the way Taiwanese designers think, the way they understand their works and the way they present their designs and all of these changing processes were recorded in journals of the time.

In the mid 20th, there were many design journals published in Taiwan, for instance: “Designer” by National Taiwanese College of Art in 1964, “People of Design” by Guo Cheng Feng in 1967, Ming Zhi Technology College’s “Industrial Design” in 1967 etc. [18]. Not only did these journals introduce and comment on works from worldwide, but they also brought back ideas from foreign designers, which became a bridge between Bauhaus and the Taiwanese design industry [9].

3.3 Visual Design in the Bauhaus

In the early 20th Century, visual design in Europe was still highly influenced by Decorativism. Curving lines and bright cheerful colors created a novelty art style (Art Nouveau, 1890–1910) which was widely used in different forms of arts, such as architecture, painting, furniture design etc. However, after the cultural industry was introduced, product design no longer only targeted the top rank consumers but the general public.

The requirements and expectations of products were also becoming more practical and functional. In order to accommodate this change, Bauhaus accepted ideas from Russian Constructivism and De Stijl, highly focused on rationality, functions and geometry [17]. These features also matched perfectly with Expressionism and Suprematism in the early 20th century which were pointing in the direction of Abstract Expressionism. Under the influence of Abstract Expressionism, Bauhaus started a series of creative experiments in visual design, including font, image content, color choice and format design

Font.

The most common font in German visual design in the early 20th century was “Garamond. This font was trivial and difficult to use and some designers noticed the problem, among them Herbert Bayer (1900–1985). Bayer was a former student of the Bauhaus who inherited the functional, practical and rational design from his school. Bayer stated in his book “On Typography”: “from the history of font design, we found that font design is lacking standards, structure, accuracy and effectiveness. The new font design should focus on the original design of letters. We need to create a font that can actually let the letters speak. This is what we need in a scientific era. [1, 13]” Based on this theory, Bayer created a font of exclusively lower-case letters in 1925, the Universal. Ever since the Universal was released, Bayer used it to design the posters for Bauhaus exhibitions. It was clear and with no complicated lines, which made communication much smoother. These were also the features of the Bauhaus’ font. The Universal was highly regarded by Walter Gropius and used widely in the Bauhaus’ publications [3, 4]. It was the most advanced design in font and graphic design.

Image Content.

Effected by the new arts movement in 1920s, Bauhaus gave up on Expressionism and turned to the Abstractism theory which Wassily Kandinsky (1866–1944) brought out, and which matched the need of Bauhaus perfectly. Kandinsky specifically defined “form” in his publication “Über das Geistige in der Kunst”: “strictly speaking, forms are the boundary between two surfaces, however, the surfaces should always contain the inner essence. In other words, all forms have their meaning.” Kandinsky focused on the integration of form and inner essence. He believed the abstract format is the best way to present deeply hidden meanings [2, 16]. Another Bauhaus master, Johannes Itten (1888–1967) started his research for Abstract Geometry in 1915. He was fascinated by the beauty of geometric shapes [7]. and according to his research, he believed only though prosodies, geometry and abstracts forms can designers represent the inner essence [11]. Therefore, under the leadership of Kandinsky and Itten, the foundation education of Bauhaus highlighted basic geometry combinations to train the students design ability. They believed squares, circles and triangles are the foundations of all other forms.

Color Choice.

On the basis of geometry, Kandinsky believed that if color elements can be added into the design, this would bring different feelings for the audiences. He stated in the “Über das Geistige in der Kunst”: “the thickness of the lines, position of the imagines, the shape of their forms are all extensions of paintings. Only the yellow triangle, red square and blue circle are the most beautiful combinations [8].” Itten believed colors should not only effect the audiences visually but also mentally [7]. His color theory made a solid foundation for modern color education.

Format Design.

In the early 20th century, Bauhaus started to use asymmetry to create unbalance and dynamic elements in visual design, and to create a contradictory sensation. At the forefront of the movement was Moholy-Nagy (1895–1946), who was strongly influenced by Russian Suprematism and Constructivism [12]. Nagy believed in rationality and focused on the tension and spaces in the second dimension, trying to make geometry more stereoscopic through perspective transformation. It was a real departure from the original second dimension and highlighted the sense of space in geometry design [14]. Gropius observed how Nagy used light as a method to understand the space in the preface of Nagy’s publication “New Vision”. Nagy raised the ideas of the fourth dimension in space and Synchronicity. He also used new techniques to strengthen the light inside the space, which makes it closer to natural light [14]. Nagy tried to explore the limits of space through the use of lights and tried to transform his own impression of light into a whole new dimension relationship in his works [15]. This series of experiments pushed dimension design to a new level.

To sum up, the experiments for font, image content, color choice and format design led by the Bauhaus created a new language in the field of visual design. This new method of displaying became the foundation of design in several different industries. It also allowed Bauhaus to overcome the barriers of nationality, language and time, becoming a long running movement around the world.

4 Research Methodology

This research cross-compares the classic early 20th century Bauhaus poster to the first ten “Industrial Design” magazine’s covers from the aspect of visual design in order to understand the development history of the two. The research started with literature reviews, and then used an online survey to gathered views from the subjects on perceptions of the difference between the images. Lastly, a series of interviews were held with magazine-related individuals. We didn’t only receive firsthand oral statements from the interviewees but also photos, documents etc., which provided us with some valuable documents for qualitative research.

4.1 Research Instrument

The subjects of the internet survey are drawn from the Taiwanese public. We targeted four different demographic groups and surveyed their understanding of four basic visual design aspects. The survey included sets of visual design: two-dimension focused (Table 1) and three-dimension focused (Table 2). Both sets contained five classic Bauhaus posters and five “Industrial Design” covers. The subjects completed the survey based on their feeling for the four basic visual design aspects.

Table 1. Stimulus group 1: visual design with 2D feature
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Table 2. Stimulus group 2: visual design with 3D feature
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4.2 Research Participants

The four targeted demographic groups are as follows: arts industry related, graphic design related, other design field related and others. 579 surveys were received and 579 were valid. The semi-structured interviews were conducted with cover designers, authors and editors of the “Industrial Design” magazine from various eras. We interviewed the subjects either once or twice. The interview time was between 20 min and an hour. The interviews were recorded and transcribed. We then analyzed them from the perspectives of formats, eras and region.

5 Research Results and Data Analysis

5.1 Visual Cognition Analysis of the Cover Design of Industrial Design Magazines

The research started by surveying the demographic groups’ understanding toward four basic visual design aspects. We tested 579 subjects. According to the result showing in Table 3 and Table 4, the “color choices” in the Bauhaus poster and the Industrial Design magazine were very similar. However, the “font” and “format design” in the two objects didn’t show the same similarity.

Table 3. Visual similarity between Bauhaus posters and Industrial Design magazines for group 1
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Table 4. Visual similarity between Bauhaus posters and Industrial Design magazines for group 2
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Furthermore, we analyzed the relationship between the subjects’ background and their responses. Among the 579 subjects, 85 of them were art industry related, 145 were graphic design related, 196 were from other design fields and 153 were from other backgrounds.

The result of group one: 2D focus, One-way ANOVA shows the F number didn’t reach a significant level, which indicates that subjects’ background doesn’t affect their choices. However, in the results of the second group “3D focus” we see the F number reach a significant level in both Font Style and Layout design using One-way ANOVA (Table 5). The result also shows that the value for those who come from “other design field” is higher than for the other backgrounds, which means they think the similarity is greater between the groups.

Table 5. Analysis of variance for visual cognition by learning backgrounds
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We analyzed the results above and came to the following conclusion:

  1. 1)

    For the “font style” the two groups share less similarity. The Bauhaus emphasized simple, sans-serif font to make the communication clearer. On the other hand, the font “Industrial Design” magazine chose to use despite its boldface feature, is obviously squashed to make the font more consistent. We also see an inclined angle at the end of the character, which shows the lively characteristics of the industry. These are the main reasons for the difference between the Bauhaus and the magazine.

  2. 2)

    As for the “color application”, a high similarity was detected. The Bauhaus tended to use original or secondary colors in design. These features were inherited by the “Industrial Design” Magazine which led to this result.

  3. 3)

    Graphics Design between the two also shows significant similarity. Emphasizing rationality and practical functions, the Bauhaus used abstractive and geographical design in visual design. Geographical design was also used in the cover for the magazine, which made for similarity between the two.

  4. 4)

    The only similarity seems to show in the second group “3D focus”. From the prospect of professional background, subjects from “other design field” saw more similarity than others. However, in the group of “2D focus” none of the subject groups think they look alike.

5.2 A Verification of Formats in Visual Design

The semi-structured interviews were taken with staff from the “Industrial Design” magazine from various eras: we interviewed four cover designers, one authors and one editor who worked between 1967 and 1979; one author, one main editor and the president from 1980 to 1998; we also interviewed one current editor, one current main editor and the current president. We used these interviews to verify the results we obtained from the studies above. At the same time, we used these opportunities to understand the influence from the Bauhaus on Taiwanese visual design between 1920s and 1960s. We used the same two groups of subjects to test the twelve objects. We noticed that their reactions were very consistent. They all thought both groups show high similarity in “color application” but that “font style” were not so similar. In the following sections we will show further explanation for the interview results.

Font Style.

Subjects thought similarity between the Bauhaus and the magazine in the prospect of Font Style is low. Subject A2, a cover designer from the first era, believed the difference came from the different focus of the two institutions. The magazine is still a commercial organization which will highlight this characteristic in its design. In order to match the lively and strong personality of “Industrial Design”, the magazine not only used boldface but also cut an inclined angle at the end of the character to create a sensation of sharpness for the readers. Yet not everyone agreed with this opinion, some of the subjects thought font design from the Bauhaus was more vivid while “Industrial Design” shows more consistency. Nevertheless, both font styles used boldface as their basis; they are both clear, easy to read, recognizable and show modernity and practicality, which made for a certain level of similarity between the two.

Color Application.

Subjects all think the two groups of work showed high similarity in color application. The main difference lies in the Bauhaus using big black blocks to show visual contrast, a technique which was rarely used in the magazine. The reason for this may come from the training for designers in the early days which did not usually encourage them to use black in their works. This made the color choices from the magazine gentler than the Bauhaus. Overall, the Bauhaus used color more boldly and without restriction while “Industrial Design” was more reserved. The magazine used secondary colors more often in their designs, which is also commonly seen in Japanese design.

Graphic Composition.

Subjects thought the Graphic Composition between the two showed some similarity. Though they both used abstractive and geometry elements in their design, the styles were not the same and this led to different visual affect. In the works of the Bauhaus, we see they not only used surfaces but also used dots and lines to create multiple layers. This resulted in a more accurate and rational visual style and contained more depth and complexity. Most subjects believe this difference came from the cultural background. The Bauhaus focused on a lively style while “Industrial Design” tried to use geometry design to create harmony which is closer to the values in Taiwan.

Layout Design.

Subjects believed some similarity showed in the two works. In group one, Graphic Design was thought to have significant difference. This came from the Bauhaus showing more rationality and order in their font and graphics while “Industrial Design” had more sensitivity and balance. However, in the group two works, Layout Design seems to share more similarity. Lines and surfaces were both used to create perspective in order to make three-dimensional effects inside two-dimensional images.

Apart from the above four basic visual design aspects, the subjects also mention how texture, collage, images and size showed their importance in visual display. They used wooden texture geometry with black, white and gray backgrounds to highlight contrast and several green color blocks to lighten the picture on the cover of their first issue. Some subjects also pointed out most magazines were 21 * 28.5 cm in 1960s while “Industrial Design” used 21 * 21 cm. This novelty size also made the magazine more modern than others available at the same time.

The designer for the third issue was Japanese designer Hiroshi Ohchi who kept the original colorful feature from “Industrial Design” but also added more brand-new features: firstly, he extended the size of color block on the cover to full size and made even greater contrast in choice color, making the magazine more lively; secondly, he used new texture in the design. Inspired by collage methods, Hiroshi used the special serrated effect from torn paper to break the usual geometrical rules. This created a new visual effect for the cover and a more varied way of displaying.

“Industrial Design” used new elements and methods to experiment in their design. They inherit some from the Bauhaus but at the same time melded western ideals with Taiwanese strengths to create a modern magazine.

6 Conclusion and Recommendations

This research cross-compares the classic early 20th century Bauhaus’s poster to the first ten “Industrial Design” magazine’s covers from the aspect of visual design, gathering opinions from contemporary audiences in order to understand the similarity between the two. While surveying the understanding of our subjects, we also tried to learn how the Bauhaus rooted itself and grew in the Taiwanese design industry.

After more than half a century’s development, the Bauhaus came to Taiwan in the 60 s and melded with local design features. This distinctive generational and regional visual design not only showed the development path but also the growth of Taiwanese society and economy.

The history of Taiwanese visual design is the foundation of modern design. For the aspect of great history, we can see a “routine cycle” feature. Therefore, we not only can study the core of original modern design and analyze it in a more complete manner but also use this to predict future trends.

This research also used group psychological cognition to understand the audiences feeling towards different designs. Hopefully, this data will be beneficial in allowing designers to understand the needs and preferences of their audiences. We also hope this research will contribute to the development of modern design history in Taiwan.