Skip to main content

“Our Field Is the World”: Geographical Societies in International Comparison, 1821–1914

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Decolonising and Internationalising Geography

Part of the book series: Historical Geography and Geosciences ((HIGEGE))

  • 460 Accesses

Abstract

As associations for the promotion and dissemination of geographical knowledge, Geographical Societies were the institutional basis of geography for the larger part of the “long” nineteenth century. Before 1914, up to 170 such Societies existed in all inhabited continents. Most historiographical research has focused on Geographical Societies in capital cities and/or dealt with them as being inside the “containers” of their respective nation-states, and as if they existed and operated in independence and isolation from one another. By contrast, in a research project launched in 2015/16 at the Leibniz Institute for Regional Geography (IfL), Leipzig, within the framework of the Leipzig Collaborative Research Centre (SFB) 1199 “Processes of Spatialization under the Global Condition”, we seek to identify connections and draw comparisons among 34 Geographical Societies from all continents and of 13 languages, including Societies from minor cities and countries. Our data comes from the Societies’ yearly journals, which we record with a standardized method that we have developed. From a Society’s proceedings, we gather, rather qualitatively, its organizational structure including its networking with other Geographical Societies; from the geographical articles in its journal, we gather, rather quantitatively through codes, the Society’s subjects (e.g. “physical geography”: “geology”; or “human geography”: “economy”), and world areas (e.g. “Africa, West”, or “Polar Regions, South”) of interest. For each Society, we thus obtain a profile reflecting its structure, activities, interests and evolution. Each profile may be explained by the Society’s local and historical context (e.g. French colonialism; Czech nationalism), and further understood through the theoretical concepts of our Collaborative Research Centre: each Society “spatialized” the world into certain “spatial formats”, which then made up a certain “spatial order”. By negotiating modes of dealing with a globalized world, the Geographical Societies thus contributed to the professionalization of geography.

Résumé

En tant qu’associations pour la promotion et la diffusion de savoir géographique, les Sociétés géographiques furent le fondement institutionnel de la géographie pour la plupart du «long» XIXe siècle. Avant 1914, il existait jusqu’à 170 Sociétés géographiques dans tous les continents habités. La plupart de la recherche historiographique s’est concentrée sur les Sociétés géographiques des capitales et/ou les a regardées à l’intérieur des «containers» de leurs États-nations respectifs, et comme si elles existaient et fonctionnaient de manière indépendante et isolée les unes des autres. En revanche, dans un projet de recherche entamé en 2015/16 à l’Institut Leibniz de géographie régionale (IfL), Leipzig, dans le cadre du Centre de recherche collaborative (SFB) 1199 «Processus de spatialisation à l’époque de la mondialisation», Leipzig, nous voulons mettre en évidence des relations et faire des comparaisons entre 34 Sociétés géographiques de tous les continents et de 13 langues, y compris des Sociétés de villes et de pays mineurs. Nos données viennent des journaux annuels des Sociétés, que nous enregistrons par une méthode standardisée que nous avons développée. Des actes d’une Société, nous recueillons, d’une manière plutôt qualitative, sa structure organisationnelle, y compris ses relations avec d’autres Sociétés géographiques. Des articles géographiques dans son journal, nous recueillons, d’une manière plutôt quantitative par le biais de codes, les sujets (par exemple, «géographie physique»: «géologie», ou «géographie humaine»: «économie») et régions du monde (par exemple, «Afrique, Ouest», ou «Régions polaires, Sud») qui intéressèrent la Société. Pour chaque Société, nous obtenons ainsi un profil reflétant sa structure, ses activités, ses intérêts et son évolution. Chaque profil peut être expliqué par le contexte local et historique de la Société (par exemple, le colonialisme français ou le nationalisme tchèque), et être compris davantage par le biais des concepts théoriques de notre Centre de recherche collaborative: chaque Société «spatialisa» le monde en certains «formats spatiaux», qui, eux, constituèrent un certain «ordre spatial». En négociant des modes de gérer un monde mondialisé, les Sociétés géographiques contribuèrent ainsi à la professionnalisation de la géographie.

Resumen

Como asociaciones para la promoción y difusión del conocimiento geográfico, las Sociedades Geográficas fueron la base institucional de la geografía para la mayor parte del “largo” siglo XIX. Antes de 1914, existían hasta 170 sociedades de este tipo en todos los continentes habitados. La mayor parte de la investigación historiográfica se ha centrado en las Sociedades Geográficas en las ciudades capitales y/o las ha tratado como si estuvieran dentro de los “contenedores” de sus respectivos Estados nacionales, y como si existieran y operaran en independencia y aislamiento la una de la otra. Por el contrario, en un proyecto de investigación lanzado en 2015/2016 en el Instituto Leibniz de Geografía Regional (IfL), Leipzig, en el marco del Centro de Investigación Colaborativa de Leipzig (SFB) 1199 “Procesos de espacialización bajo la Condición Global”, buscamos identificar conexiones y establecer comparaciones entre 34 Sociedades Geográficas de todos los continentes y de 13 idiomas, incluidas las Sociedades de ciudades y países menores. Nuestros datos provienen de las revistas anuales de las Sociedades, que registramos con un método estandarizado que hemos desarrollado. A partir de los procedimientos de una sociedad, reunimos, de forma bastante cualitativa, su estructura organizativa, incluida su creación de redes con otras sociedades geográficas. A partir de los artículos geográficos en su revista, reunimos, cuantitativamente, a través de códigos, los temas de la Sociedad (por ejemplo, “geografía física”: “geología”; o “geografía humana”: “economía”) y áreas mundiales (por ejemplo, “África, Occidente”, o “Regiones polares, Sur”) de interés. Para cada Sociedad, obtenemos un perfil que refleja su estructura, actividades, intereses y evolución. Cada perfil puede explicarse por el contexto local e histórico de la Sociedad (por ejemplo, el colonialismo francés; el nacionalismo checo), y entenderse mejor a través de los conceptos teóricos de nuestro Centro de Investigación Colaborativa: cada Sociedad “espacializó” el mundo en ciertos “formatos espaciales”, que luego formó un cierto “orden espacial”. Al negociar modos de tratar con un mundo globalizado, las Sociedades Geográficas contribuyeron así a la profesionalización de la geografía.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    At the time, to be sure, Algeria was a French colony, and Egypt was about to become a British one. Thus, their Geographical Societies consisted of immigrated Westerners and Westernized locals rather than of “real” Egyptians or Algerians; and the language of both the Cairo and the Algiers Societies was French rather than Arabic.

  2. 2.

    The most-quoted lists of Geographical Societies are those compiled by, successively, Ernst Behm, Hugo Wichmann and Georg Kollm in various volumes of the Geographisches Jahrbuch between 1866 (vol. 1) and 1909 (vol. 32). However, for the time after 1909, and because of omissions and errors in those lists, we have complemented them with various other sources. By the way, in contrast to other research, we do not count as Geographical Societies those establishments, mostly located in Latin America, that called themselves “Geographical Institutes”, such as the “Institutes” of Rio de Janeiro (est. 1838) and Buenos Aires (1879).

  3. 3.

    The name “Society of Commercial Geography” meant that the respective Society was led by businessmen and other “bourgeois” and sought to collect geographical information that would help overseas businesses and trade, especially in or with the respective country’s colonies. In regions and subjects of interest, Societies of “Commercial Geography” did not differ much from “classic” Societies of Geography. The difference lay in methods and aims: “commercial geography” was an applied, “utilitarian” one, as opposed to a theoretical, academic geography (Lejeune 1993: 147–156).

  4. 4.

    On the Societies of Rome: Carazzi (1972), Natili (2008); Milan: Milanini Kemény (1973); Berlin: Bader (1978); St. Petersburg: Bassin (1983), Weiss (2007); Bordeaux: Péhaut (1994); Lima: López-Ocón (1994); Quebec: Bergevin (1994); Amsterdam: van der Velde (1995); Cairo: Ferrié and Boëstch (1996); Madrid: Rodríguez Esteban (1996), Villanova Valero (1999), Nogué and Villanova (2002); Nancy: Bonnefont (1999); London: Driver (2001): Chap. 2; Edinburgh: Kuitenbrouwer (2004); Lisbon: Garcia (2004); Paris: Gómez Mendoza (2005); Lyon: Klein (2008); France: Lejeune (1993); Spain: Hernández Sandoica (1994); Belgium: Nicolaï (1994); Italy: Monina (2002); Latin America: López-Ocón (1996); on various Geographical Societies: Capel (1981): Chap. 7, Heffernan (2003), Butlin (2009): Chap. 6.

  5. 5.

    On geography’s links to “national identity”: Hooson (1994); to “colonization”: Bruneau and Dory (1994), Singaravelou (2008); to “imperialism”: Hudson (1972), Bell et al. (1995); to “empire”: Godlewska and Smith (1994), Driver (2001), Butlin (2009).

  6. 6.

    In the case of, for example, the Rome Society, its journal’s monthly issues were each delivered with a cover containing, among other things, a list of the Society’s current officials. At libraries, however, all issues of one year were usually bound together in one volume, in which process the issues’ covers were discarded. Therefore, the information on the covers may elude us, because for our research project, we must do with the printed or scanned library copies of journals that we happen to obtain.

  7. 7.

    For around 1900, on colonialism in French schools: Manceron (2003); on the strong support from German schoolteachers for imperialism and nationalism: Wehler (1995): 1209.

  8. 8.

    To be sure, if we gather certain structures, interests and activities of a Geographical Society from its journal or further sources, this does not mean that all its members continuously supported those structures, shared those interests, or participated in those activities. Any Society’s members may have been so heterogeneous that in practice, its structures, interests and activities may have been less uniform and consistent than what we read in the sources. However, if we are to look at many Societies at the same time, we cannot do without some generalizations.

References

  • Bader FJW (1978) Die Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin und die koloniale Erschließung Afrikas in der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts bis zur Gründung der ersten deutschen Kolonien. Erde 109:36–48

    Google Scholar 

  • Barke M et al (2013) The Tyneside Geographical Society, 1887–1944: its rise and decline. Tyne & Tweed: J Assoc Northumberland Local History Soc 66:19–25

    Google Scholar 

  • Bassin M (1983) The Russian Geographical Society, the “Amur Epoch”, and the Great Siberian Expedition 1855–1863. Ann Assoc Am Geogr 73(2):240–256

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bell M et al (eds) (1995) Geography and imperialism, 1820–1940. Manchester University Press, Manchester

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell M, McEwan C (1996) The admission of women fellows to the Royal Geographical Society, 1892–1914: the controversy and the outcome. Geogr J 162(3):295–312

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berelowitch W (1990) Aux origines de l’ethnographie russe. La Société de géographie dans les années 1840–1850. Cahiers du Monde russe et soviétique 31(2–3):265–273

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergevin J (1994) La société de géographie de Québec et la colonisation. In: Bruneau and Dory, pp 67–75

    Google Scholar 

  • Bonnefont J-C (1999) La Société de géographie de l’Est. Une géographie militante et conviviale à la Belle Époque. Revue Géographique de l’Est 39(1). http://journals.openedition.org/rge/4551

  • Bruneau M, Dory D (eds) (1994) Géographies des colonisations, XVe–XXe siècles. L’Harmattan, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • Butlin RA (2009) Geographies of empire: European empires and colonies, c. 1880–1960. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Camboulives R (1981/82) Historique de la Société. Bulletin de la Société de Géographie de Toulouse 262—Supplement: Bulletin spécial de la Société de Géographie de Toulouse: Centenaire de la Société (1882–1982):7–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Camu P (1957) Le quatre-vingtième anniversaire de la Société de géographie de Québec. Cahiers de géographie du Québec 2(3):135–140

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Capel H (1981) Filosofía y ciencia en la geografía contemporánea. Barcanova, Barcelona

    Google Scholar 

  • Carazzi M (1972) La Società Geografica Italiana e l’esplorazione coloniale in Africa (1867–1900). La Nuova Italia, Florence

    Google Scholar 

  • Cerny T (2017) Für die nationale Sache mit Erdkunde? Langzeituntersuchung des Fachorgans der Tschechischen Geographischen Gesellschaft (1895–1920). Master’s Thesis, Universität Leipzig

    Google Scholar 

  • Clout H (2008a) Popular geographies and scholarly geographies in provincial France: The Société normande de géographie, 1879–1937. J Histor Geogr 34(1):24–47

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clout H (2008b) Popular geographies in a French port city: the experience of the Le Havre Society of Commercial Geography, 1884–1948. Scott Geogr J 124(1):53–77

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Driver F (2001) Geography militant: cultures of exploration and empire. Blackwell, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferrié J-N, Boëstch G (1996) La Société de géographie du Caire à l’époque coloniale. Mise en scène de la science et réseaux scientifiques. In: Petitjean P (ed) Les sciences coloniales. Figures et institutions. Orstom, Paris, pp 69–78

    Google Scholar 

  • Friederichsen L (1898) Rückblick auf die Gründung und Entwickelung der Geographischen Gesellschaft in Hamburg während der ersten fünfundzwanzig Jahre ihres Bestehens. Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft in Hamburg 14:1–43

    Google Scholar 

  • Garcia JLL (2004) A Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa e a propaganda colonial em Portugal no final do século XIX. Escola Superior de Educação da Guarda, Guarda

    Google Scholar 

  • Godlewska A, Smith N (eds) (1994) Geography and empire. Blackwell, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Gómez Mendoza J (2005) Ciencia y movimiento colonial en la Sociedad Geográfica de París. Boletín de la Sociedad Geográfica Española 20:60–69

    Google Scholar 

  • Greiner P (2017) Geographies of empire and nation in Scandinavia: Nordic Geographical Societies and their role in processes of spatialization and territorialization, 1876–1914. Master’s Thesis, Roskilde University

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayes E (2018) Geographical light: the Magic Lantern, the reform of the Royal Geographical Society and the professionalization of Geography, c. 1885–1894. J Histor Geogr 62:24–36

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heffernan M (2003) Histories of geography. In: Holloway SL et al (eds) Key concepts in geography. SAGE, London, pp 3–22

    Google Scholar 

  • Hernández Sandoica E (1994) Colonialisme et sociétés géographiques dans l’Espagne du XIXe siècle. In: Bruneau and Dory, pp 23–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooson D (ed) (1994) Geography and national identity. Blackwell, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Hudson B (1972) The New Geography and the New Imperialism: 1870–1918. Antipode 9(2):12–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jud P (1989) 100 Jahre Geographisch-Ethnographische Gesellschaft Zürich. Geographica Helvetica 44(3):113–151

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klein J-F (2008) La Société de géographie de Lyon. Pour la Croix et la Soie? (1873–1908). In: Singaravelou, pp 94–111

    Google Scholar 

  • Kollm G (1909) Geographische Gesellschaften, Zeitschriften, Kongresse und Ausstellungen. Geographisches Jahrbuch 32:409–438

    Google Scholar 

  • Koner W (1878) Zur Erinnerung an das fünfzigjährige Bestehen der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin. Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin 13:169–250

    Google Scholar 

  • Kretschmer I, Fasching G (eds) (2006) Österreich in der Welt—die Welt in Österreich. Chronik der Österreichischen Geographischen Gesellschaft—150 Jahre (1856–2006). Österreichische Geographische Gesellschaft, Vienna

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuitenbrouwer JJV (2004) The crowning chapter of geography: the Royal Scottish Geographical Society and the Scramble for Africa, 1884–1893. Itinerario 28(2):135–156

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lejeune D (1993) Les Sociétés de géographie en France et l’expansion coloniale au XIXe siècle. Albin Michel, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • López-Ocón L (1994) Les activités scientifiques de la Société géographique de Lima. In: Bruneau and Dory, pp 95–106

    Google Scholar 

  • López-Ocón L (1996) Les Sociétés de géographie: un instrument de diffusion scientifique en Amérique latine au début du XXe siècle (1900–1914). In: Petitjean P (ed) Les sciences coloniales. Figures et institutions, Orstom, Paris, pp 79–86

    Google Scholar 

  • MacKenzie JM (1995) The provincial geographical societies in Britain, 1884–1914. In: Bell et al. pp 93–124

    Google Scholar 

  • Manceron G (2003) École, pédagogie et colonies. In: Blanchard P, Lemaire S (eds) Culture coloniale. La France conquise par son empire, 1871–1931. Autrement, Paris, pp 92–103

    Google Scholar 

  • Markham CR (1881) The fifty years’ work of the Royal Geographical Society. John Murray, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Marosi S (1994) A Magyar Földrajzi Társaság első 120 éve (1872–1992). Földrajzi Közlemények 118/42(1):5–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer JW et al (1997) World society and the nation-state. Am J Sociol 103(1):144–181

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Middell M (2019) Raumformate—Bausteine in Prozessen der Neuverräumlichung = Working Paper Series des SFB 1199 an der Universität Leipzig, no. 14. Leipziger Universitätsverlag, Leipzig

    Google Scholar 

  • Milanini Kemény A (1973) La Società d’esplorazione commerciale in Africa e la politica coloniale (1879–1914). La Nuova Italia, Florence

    Google Scholar 

  • Monina G (2002) Il consenso coloniale. Le Società geografiche e l’Istituto coloniale italiano (1896–1914). Carocci, Rome

    Google Scholar 

  • Natili D (2008) Un programma coloniale: la Società Geografica Italiana e le origini dell’espansione in Etiopia (1867–1884). Gangemi, Rome

    Google Scholar 

  • Nicolaï H (1994) Les géographes belges et le Congo. In: Bruneau and Dory, pp 51–67

    Google Scholar 

  • Nogué J, Villanova JL (2002) Spanish colonialism in Morocco and the Sociedad Geográfica de Madrid, 1876–1956. J Histor Geogr 28(1):1–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Payne MM (1963) 75 years exploring earth, sea and sky: National Geographic Society observes its diamond anniversary. National Geographic Magazine 123(1):1–43

    Google Scholar 

  • Péaud L (2016) La géographie, émergence d’un champ scientifique. France, Prusse et Grande-Bretagne (1780–1860). ENS Éditions, Lyon

    Google Scholar 

  • Péhaut Y (1994) Géographie, colonies et commerce à Bordeaux, 1874–1939. In: Bruneau and Dory, pp 77–94

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodríguez Esteban JA (1996) Geografía y colonialismo. La Sociedad Geográfica de Madrid (1876–1936). Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid

    Google Scholar 

  • Schober V (2018) Die Koninklijk Nederlands Aardrijkskundig Genootschap im Zeitalter des Imperialismus, 1873–1914. Bachelor’s Thesis, Universität Leipzig

    Google Scholar 

  • Schou A (1977) Det Kongelige Danske Geografiske Selskab, 1876–1976 (Foredraget på festmødet den 7. december 1976 i anledning af 100 års jubilæet). Geografisk Tidsskrift 76:X–XIV

    Google Scholar 

  • Schulten S (2001) The geographical imagination in America, 1880–1950. University of Chicago Press, Chicago

    Google Scholar 

  • Singaravelou P (ed) (2008) L’empire des géographes. Géographie, exploration et colonisation, XIXe–XXe siècles. Belin, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • Société royale belge de géographie (ed) (1926) Cinquantième anniversaire de la fondation de la Société royale belge de géographie. Bulletin de la Société royale belge de géographie 50(3–4):173–194

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinbach-Hüther N et al. (2019) Geographiegeschichtsschreibung und Digital Humanities. Neue Methoden für Zeitschriftenanalysen = Working Paper Series des SFB 1199 an der Universität Leipzig, no. 15. Leipziger Universitätsverlag, Leipzig

    Google Scholar 

  • Stintzing M (2017) Geographische Gesellschaften im 19. Jahrhundert. Ein Vergleich der Aktivitätsprofile der (Real) Sociedad Geográfica de Madrid und der Sociedad Geográfica de Lima. Master’s Thesis, Otto-Friedrich-Universität Bamberg

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Velde P (1995) The Royal Dutch Geographical Society and the Dutch East Indies, 1873–1914: from colonial lobby to colonial hobby. In: Bell et al. pp 80–92

    Google Scholar 

  • Villanova Valero JL (1999) La Sociedad Geográfica de Madrid y el colonialismo español en Marruecos (1876–1956). Documents d’Anàlisi Geográfica 34:161–187

    Google Scholar 

  • Wehler H-U (1995) Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte, vol. 3: 1849–1914. C.H. Beck, Munich

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss C (2007) Wie Sibirien „unser“ wurde. Die Russische Geographische Gesellschaft und ihr Einfluss auf die Bilder und Vorstellungen von Sibirien im 19. Jahrhundert. V&R unipress, Göttingen

    Google Scholar 

  • Zusman P (1996) Sociedades geográficas na promoção do saber ao respeito do território: estratégias políticas e acadêmicas das instituições geográficas na Argentina (1879–1942) e no Brasil (1838–1945). Dissertation, Universidade de São Paulo

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ute Wardenga .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Georg, M., Wardenga, U. (2020). “Our Field Is the World”: Geographical Societies in International Comparison, 1821–1914. In: Schelhaas, B., Ferretti, F., Reyes Novaes, A., Schmidt di Friedberg, M. (eds) Decolonising and Internationalising Geography. Historical Geography and Geosciences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49516-9_7

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics