A Typology of Direct Action at Sea

Abstract

Direct Action (DA) is a sometimes confrontational strategy employed by those seeking to bring about the change they would like to see in the world. It is typically applied within the boundaries of states, however, the high seas provide an ideal theatre for the use of DA at the international level. The most prolific practitioners of DA at the international level are marine conservation organizations. In recent years, there has been increased diversity of DA strategies. This chapter develops a typology of DA at sea, using the categories of traditional DA, service provision, monitoring/surveillance, deterrence and compellence. The latter three categories of the typology eschew the moral framing traditionally invoked by activists, in favour of legalistic framing. These forms of ‘Direct Enforcement’ (DE) frame ecologically harmful activity as criminal in nature, and propose DA as a form of law enforcement. In so doing, practitioners expand the role of non-state actors into a territory traditionally reserved for the state. While this expansion has the potential to put activists and governments into conflict, this is not exclusively the case. Several activist-state relationships are identified: acquiescence, antipathy, concurrence and collaboration.

I am grateful for the ideas, editorial assistance, and advice of Dr. Mette Eilstrup-Sangiovanni, Stan Phelps, Bryce Casavant, and Danita Catherine Burke. A portion of this research was conducted with the support of a Visiting Researcher Fellowship at the Centre for Global Studies, University of Victoria, and I am thankful for this assistance. I am especially indebted to Stephanie Ferguson for all of her support.