Abstract
This chapter describes precursors to CDA, and important foundational concepts and theories. We first review briefly the ideas of the British linguist, John Rupert Firth, and his anthropologist colleague, Bronislaw Malinowski, and then discuss Michael Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) and Language as Social Semiotic (SocSem) and some ideas originated by James Martin—including his stratal-functional model, notions of text and context (and register and genre), the three metafunctions, grammatical metaphor and ‘appliable linguistics’. Next, we describe critical linguistics (CritLing): its relation to other approaches, its definition, important works such as Language and Control and Language as Ideology, its interdisciplinarity and ‘useability’ as an approach, and its further development in Kress (1985b/1989), Linguistic Processes in Sociocultural Practice. We then discuss the complex relationship between CritLing and SocSem, the further development of SocSem in Hodge and Kress (1988) and especially in Kress and Theo van Leeuwen’s work on the ‘grammar’ of visual design in Reading Images (1996), including the three metafunctions and other facets of the visual. We conclude with the development of multimodality—and a short discussion of Kress and van Leeuwen’s Multimodal Discourse in relation to CritLing, SocSem, and CDA.
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Notes
- 1.
- 2.
From now on, in all cases where there are italics or bolding in a quotation, those come from the original.
- 3.
He made no separation between ‘society’ and ‘culture’ and so we will use both nouns interchangeably or together, as well as the adjectives ‘social’, ‘cultural’, and, especially, ‘sociocultural’.
- 4.
He included in this language in urban society vs. ‘antilanguages’, which are generated by an ‘antisociety’, i.e., criminal gangs, the underworld, subcultures, etc., which have their own distinct social structure and thus an alternative social reality, a different social world (see Halliday, 1978: 164–182).
- 5.
- 6.
We think that this creative use of English by using ‘text’ (and other technical terms such as ‘clause’, ‘theme’, ‘subject’, ‘actor’) in the generic sense, without any article in a context where a speaker/reader of one of the versions of standard English would expect an article, expands the meaning making potential of English. But it is also one of the many reasons why some have found SFL/SFG difficult to understand. We also want to recognize the creative use of ‘mean’ in a generic sense, in ‘learning how to mean’ (and to a certain extent in ‘meaning-making’, ‘meaning potential’, etc.).
- 7.
According to the strict definition of metaphor vs. metonymy, this is actually a case of metonymy—however we will not go into that issue here.
- 8.
He rejected the term ‘applied linguistics’ (and also ‘applicable linguistics’), since he felt that for some it was too narrow in scope, and used instead ‘appliable linguistics’, since it denoted application to some specific task; since his approach was very wide and embraced anything having to do with language, it had wide scope.
- 9.
- 10.
It is important to note that while this book was co-authored, each chapter is attributed to specific authors; while “all were submitted to the other authors for criticism, and most were extensively revised as a result” (1979: 4), we have decided to specify the chapters and their authors in our discussion and in the list of references.
- 11.
Other types of texts they worked on include (bureaucratic) rules and regulations, interviews, birth registration certificates, and official announcements, as well as greeting cards, pop songs, conversations, and university guidelines on student enrollment.
- 12.
ANC stands for the African National Congress, the (mostly Black and African) opposition to the white rule.
- 13.
As we go to press in the midst of a global Black Lives Matter movement, it strikes us that this same type of headline is still being produced today, and hence the work of critical linguists that started in the 1970s is still relevant, useful, and needed in 2020 (sadly).
- 14.
- 15.
Wodak 2001 refers to Fowler 1991a for an account of CritLing; we also recommend Kress 1990, since each one provides somewhat different pictures written by two major critical linguists. These two articles—and many other sources, especially Fairclough and Wodak 1997; Kress 1991; Wodak 2001; Wodak and Meyer 2009, 2016—have informed our discussion of CritLing in this chapter.
- 16.
- 17.
The difference between the 1985 and 1989 editions is that the 1989 edition has a Forward (pp. v–xii) by the editor (Frances Christie) of the series it was published in. Since the pagination of both editions is identical, we cite 1989, but the reader can find the given quote in either the 1985 or the 1989 edition.
- 18.
They also praised him in their “Preface” “for his inspiring example as a researcher, teacher and explorer of the social functions of language” (Hodge and Kress, 1988: ix).
- 19.
O’Toole 1994 is a functional semiotic approach to the language of displayed art, e.g., sculpture, architecture, and painting, using Halliday’s SFL and especially his metafunctions (with different labels and definitions to suit the realms he discussed). He included a discussion of social semiotics near the end of the book, that is, he considered what kind of social meanings are at play, but he didn’t try to do a grammar of visual design, as Kress and van Leeuwen (1996) did.
- 20.
The current chapter was written in 2018 and updated in 2019 when modality questions of truth, factuality, certainty and credibility (and the attendant issue of trust) vs. falsehood, fiction, doubt, unreliability (and distrust) were uppermost in the minds of many, due to various political events during those years, in Europe, the UK, and the US, and which continued in 2019 (particularly with the issue of Brexit and the impeachment inquiry and trial of Donald Trump)—and they have kept continuing in 2020.
- 21.
Andersen et al. 2015, on Social Semiotics: Key Figures, New Directions, focused on, and included interviews with, Christian Matthiessen, James Martin, Gunther Kress, Theo van Leeuwen, and Jay Lemke, who were chosen by the authors because they were inspired by the work of Halliday in SFL and his model of SocSem while developing original work of their own. Among other things, the interviews highlight their main lines of thought and discuss how they relate to both Halliday’s original concept of SocSem and to each other. We focus here only on Kress and van Leeuwen, since they had the most impact on SocSem in relation to CDA (see also Sects. 3.2 and 3.8).
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Catalano, T., Waugh, L.R. (2020). Precursors to CDA and Important Foundational Concepts. In: Critical Discourse Analysis, Critical Discourse Studies and Beyond. Perspectives in Pragmatics, Philosophy & Psychology, vol 26. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49379-0_2
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