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Constitutionalism Under Extreme Conditions pp 427–452Cite as

Emergency’s Challenges

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Part of the book series: Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice ((IUSGENT,volume 82))

Abstract

The final chapter examines several of the overarching challenges that are raised by “emergencies,” regardless of specific contexts in which that term is invoked. It focuses on five types of general concerns, namely the normalization of the exception, the problematics of balancing between the competing values of security and liberty, the manipulability of the very use of the concept of “emergency” to frame a given situation or state of affairs, the “Us versus Them” character of emergency situations that, in turn, exacerbates some of the previously identified challenges, and the capacity to exercise international monitoring and supervision when a government declares a state of emergency.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Gross and Ní Aoláon (2006), 171–243.

  2. 2.

    Gross and Ní Aoláon (2006), 172–174.

  3. 3.

    Willcock v. Muckle, 2 K.B. 844, 853–54 (1951) (Devlin, J.).

  4. 4.

    Gross (2003), 1035–1036.

  5. 5.

    Russett (1990), 34.

  6. 6.

    Koh (1988), 1255; Koh (1990), 117–149.

  7. 7.

    UN Doc. A/72/43280.

  8. 8.

    Ní Aoláin (2017).

  9. 9.

    UN Doc. A/HRC/37/52 (2018), para 16.

  10. 10.

    Questiaux (1982), para 118.

  11. 11.

    Fenwick and Phillipson (2011), 867.

  12. 12.

    Bomhoff (2008), 556.

  13. 13.

    Beatty (2005).

  14. 14.

    Waldron (2007), 455.

  15. 15.

    Noll and Krier (2000), 327.

  16. 16.

    Simon (1957), 198.

  17. 17.

    See, e.g., Finucan et al. (2000), 5–8.

  18. 18.

    Fiske and Taylor (2017), 37.

  19. 19.

    Plous (1993), 109.

  20. 20.

    Plous (1993), 131–44.

  21. 21.

    Tversky and Kahneman (1973), 207; Tversky and Kahneman (1982), 11.

  22. 22.

    The flip side is that unavailability might lead to underestimation, and as a result also underreaction. This may have accounted to the intelligence failure in foiling the attacks of September 11 and comprehending the true nature of the risk. See, e.g., Sunstein (2007), 535; Bazerman and Watkins (2004), 15–41.

  23. 23.

    Plous (1993), 126.

  24. 24.

    Tversky and Kahneman (1982), 11.

  25. 25.

    Loewenstein and O’Donoghue (2006), 201; Zimbardo (2003); Shapiro and Cohen (2007); Paul and Park (2009).

  26. 26.

    Slovic (2004), 984–989.

  27. 27.

    Kahneman and Tversky (2001), 17; Slovic (2004), 982–983.

  28. 28.

    Wells (2004), 925.

  29. 29.

    Slovic (2000), 985–986.

  30. 30.

    Erikson (1994); Slovic (2004), 985.

  31. 31.

    Quoted in Suskind (2006), 61–62.

  32. 32.

    Sunstein (2002a), 66; Sunstein (2002b), 1137–1144; Sunstein (2005).

  33. 33.

    Sunstein (2007), 527–528, 531–532.

  34. 34.

    Sunstein (2007), 524–529.

  35. 35.

    Sunstein (2007), 544–45; Sandman (1989), 45.

  36. 36.

    For discussion of “reputational cascade” see Sunstein (2003), 74–95.

  37. 37.

    Sunstein (2003), 55.

  38. 38.

    Gross (2003), 1034.

  39. 39.

    Kuran and Sunstein (1999), 727; Sunstein (2007), 539. See also Walker Wilson and Fuchs (2009).

  40. 40.

    Eisenhower (1961). See also Hanson and Kysar (1999a, b), 722–743; Hanson and Kysar (1999a, b).

  41. 41.

    Sunstein (2003), 54–95.

  42. 42.

    Masur (2007), 1325.

  43. 43.

    Masur (2007), 1329.

  44. 44.

    Sunstein (2005), 100. See also Rachlinski (2003), 1172–1173.

  45. 45.

    Horwitz (2003), 17; Plous (1993), 231–234.

  46. 46.

    See, e.g., Guthrie et al. (2001), 799–803.

  47. 47.

    Tulis (2017), 203.

  48. 48.

    Lakoff (2009), 13.

  49. 49.

    Lakoff G (2009), 15.

  50. 50.

    Thaler and Sunstein (2008), 37.

  51. 51.

    Thaler and Sunstein (2008), 13.

  52. 52.

    Vatz (1973), 156.

  53. 53.

    Compare Vatz (1973), 154, with Bitzer (1968), 2.

  54. 54.

    Vatz (1973), 157. See also Berg (2009), 17–22.

  55. 55.

    Stuckey (1991), 1.

  56. 56.

    ‘Shifting language: trading terrorism for extremism (2005). See also Campbell Kohrs and Jamieson Hall (1990), 3.

  57. 57.

    Berg (2009), 9.

  58. 58.

    Campbell Kohrs and Jamieson Hall (1990), 6.

  59. 59.

    Campbell Kohrs and Jamieson Hall (1990), 113.

  60. 60.

    Rossiter (1948), 288–290.

  61. 61.

    Koh (1990), 117–149.

  62. 62.

    Montesquieu (1748), 154; Lobel J (1989), 1386.

  63. 63.

    Wolfe (2008), 1.

  64. 64.

    Tulis (2017), 176.

  65. 65.

    Tulis (2017), 178–79. See also Tulis J (2017), 179; Kelley and Martinez (2002).

  66. 66.

    See, e.g., Hasen (1990); Stohl (1976), 82–95; Slovic et al. (1982), 483; Slovic (2004), 981. See also Loewenstein and Mather (1990), 161–65.

  67. 67.

    Campbell Kohrs and Jamieson Hall (1990), 105–18.

  68. 68.

    Campbell Kohrs and Jamieson Hall (1990), 111.

  69. 69.

    Campbell Kohrs and Jamieson Hall (1990), 111.

  70. 70.

    Schneider and Ingram (1993); Morone (2003).

  71. 71.

    Johannesen et al. (eds) (1970), 90.

  72. 72.

    Weaver (2015), 212.

  73. 73.

    Jackson (2007), 354.

  74. 74.

    Tulis (2017), 171.

  75. 75.

    Orwell (1964), 246.

  76. 76.

    Kahneman and Tversky (2001), 457–458.

  77. 77.

    Kahneman and Tversky (2001), 457–458.

  78. 78.

    Kahneman and Tversky (2001), 457–458; Plous (1993), 145–146.

  79. 79.

    Will (2001).

  80. 80.

    Gross and Ní Aoláin (2006), 220–227.

  81. 81.

    Bush (2001).

  82. 82.

    Hillyard (1993), 257; Volpp (2003), 147.

  83. 83.

    Gross (2003), 1082–1085.

  84. 84.

    Cole (2003), 4–5.

  85. 85.

    Higham (2002), 4.

  86. 86.

    Higham (2002), 4.

  87. 87.

    Stuntz (2002), 2165.

  88. 88.

    Blasi (1985), 457; Méndez (2002), 383; Stone (2004), 545; Monaghan (1993), 26.

  89. 89.

    Rachlinski et al. (2006), 1256.

  90. 90.

    Rachlinski et al. (2006), 1250–1252. See also Karst (2006), 1342–43.

  91. 91.

    Bosniak (2000); Wells (2005).

  92. 92.

    Brown (2010).

  93. 93.

    Wells (2004), 909–921.

  94. 94.

    Wiecek W (2001), 381.

  95. 95.

    Editorial (2005), 18; Guthrie and Tighe (2005), 13; Jenkins et al. (2005), 4.

  96. 96.

    Rawls (1999), 102–107.

  97. 97.

    Small and Loewenstein (2005), 315–316.

  98. 98.

    Gray (1988), 156–202; Reid (1976), 267–69; Volpp (2002) 1586–1587.

  99. 99.

    See, e.g., Bush (2001) (declaring that “This will be a monumental struggle of good versus evil. But good will prevail.”); Bush (2001) (positioning America and its allies as “those who want peace and security in the world” against evil acts of terrorism).

  100. 100.

    See, e.g., Bush (2001) (asking for “God’s good graces” and prayers on “the Lord’s Day” (Sunday)).

  101. 101.

    Hanson and Yosifan (2004), 55–57.

  102. 102.

    Billig (2003), xiii. See, e.g., Friedman (2009), WK8.

  103. 103.

    Ivie (1980), 280; Ivie (2005), 10–49; Bostdorff (1994) 205–240.

  104. 104.

    Schauer (1986).

  105. 105.

    Goode and Ben-Yehuda (2009), 37–38.

  106. 106.

    Hillyard (1993), 257.

  107. 107.

    Cohen (1972), 11–12; see also Livingston Smith (2011).

  108. 108.

    Furedi (2008), 651.

  109. 109.

    For the latter see, e.g., Cohn Weiss (2006), 1117–1120. See also Hamilton (2012).

  110. 110.

    Goode and Ben-Yehuda (2009), 88–108.

  111. 111.

    Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, Nov. 4, 1950, 213 U.N.T.S. 221 (entered into force Sept. 3, 1953).

  112. 112.

    International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Dec. 16, 1966, 999 U.N.T.S. 171, 6 I.L.M. 368.

  113. 113.

    American Convention on Human Rights, Nov. 22, 1969, O.A.S. Official Records OEA/ser. K/XVI/1.1, doc. 65 rev. 1 corr. 1 (entered into force July 18, 1978), 9 I.L.M. 673 (1970).

  114. 114.

    Gross (1998), 448–453.

  115. 115.

    Gross (1998), 440.

  116. 116.

    See e.g., Lawless v. Ireland, 1 Eur. H.R. Rep. 15, 37 (1961); Ireland v. United Kingdom, 2 Eur. H.R. Rep. 25, 107 (1976); Refah Partisi v. Turkey, 35 Eur. H.R. Rep. 3, 89 (2002); Askoy v. Turkey, 1996-VI Eur. Ct. H.R. 2260, 2281; Sakik v. Turkey, 1997-VII Eur. Ct. H.R. 2609, 2628; see also Ní Aoláin (1995).

  117. 117.

    See e.g., Aksoy v. Turkey, 1996-VI Eur. Ct. H.R. 2260 at 78; see also McCann and Others v. the United Kingdom, 324 Eur. Ct. H.R. (ser. A) at 149–50 (1995).

  118. 118.

    Sec’y of State for the Home Dep’t v. AF (No 3), [2009] UKHL 28, [2010] 2 A.C. 269 33; Sec’y of State for the Home Dep’t v. MB & AF, [2007] UKHL 46, [2008] 1 A.C 440, 484–85, 496–97.

  119. 119.

    Masferrer (2012), 9.

  120. 120.

    Gross and Ní Aoláin (2006), 228–243; Vladeck (2012), 1300; Dyzenhaus (2006), 17–65.

  121. 121.

    Zwitter et al. (2014).

  122. 122.

    List of Declarations Made by the United Kingdom Regarding the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, Council Eur. Treaty Off. (Oct. 29, 2014), http://www.conventions.coe.int/treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarations.asp?PO=UK&NT=005&MA=999&CV=1&NA=&CN=999&VL=1&CM=5&CL=ENG.

  123. 123.

    Joint Committee on Human Rights, Counter-Terrorism Policy and Human Rights (Seventeenth Report): Bringing Human Rights Back In, 2009–10, H.L. 86, H.C. 111, at 7–8 (U.K.) (see in particular paragraphs 11 and 12, where the Parliamentary Committee disputes the executive’s assertion that the conditions exist sufficient to claim a state of emergency relying on the assessment of the Joint Terrorism Analysis Center (JTAC)).

  124. 124.

    Terrorism Act, 2000, c. 11 (U.K.).

  125. 125.

    Gross (2018).

  126. 126.

    Privy Council Office, Securing an Open Society: Canada’s National Security Policy (2004).

  127. 127.

    See Lichtenberg (2012).

  128. 128.

    Since 9/11, Australian states have passed a number of laws authorizing temporary emergency powers. See, e.g., Terrorism (Extraordinary Temporary Powers) Act 2006, (Austl. Cap. Terr.) (Austl.), available at http://www.legislation.act.gov.au/a/2006-21/current/pdf/2006-21.pdf; Terrorism (Emergency Powers) Act 2003 (N. Terr.) (Austl.), available at http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nt/consol_act/tpa323/; Terrorism (Police Powers) Act 2002 (N.S.W.) (Austl.), available at http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/tpa2002291/.

  129. 129.

    See e.g., Terrorism Act, 2000, c. 11 (U.K.); Lane Scheppele (2006).

  130. 130.

    The legislation included the Terrorism Act (2000), the Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act (2001), the Criminal Justice Act (2003), the Prevention of Terrorism Act (2005), the Terrorism Act (2006), the Terrorism (United Nations Measures) Order 2006, and the Counter-Terrorism Act (2008).

  131. 131.

    McGovern (2011), 223.

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  1. University of Minnesota Law School, Minneapolis, MN, USA

    Oren Gross

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    Richard Albert

  2. Harry Radzyner Law School, Interdisciplinary Center (IDC) Herzliya, Herzliya, Israel

    Yaniv Roznai

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Gross, O. (2020). Emergency’s Challenges. In: Albert, R., Roznai, Y. (eds) Constitutionalism Under Extreme Conditions. Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice, vol 82. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49000-3_24

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