Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Opportunities: Where Do the Opportunities for Muslim Women to Participate in Politics Lie?

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Muslim Women’s Political Participation in France and Belgium

Part of the book series: New Directions in Islam ((NDI))

  • 159 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter is centred on the location of opportunities for Muslim women’s political participation. It includes an in-depth comparative review of the formal Political Opportunity Structures in each case, namely the structural and institutional elements and how these effect Muslim women’s political participation. The chapter continues with a comparative analysis of the expressed opportunities reported by the women in this book. It reveals the intersectional nature of ethnic, gendered and religious factors combined with context generated opportunities and how these ultimately shape Muslim women’s political participation in France and Belgium. In particular, the chapter analyses patterns of ethnic minority vote seeking and how this interacts with the constraints of normative models of thought, such as those surrounding secularism or laïcité in France for example. Essentially, the chapter addresses the ways in which Muslim women’s motivations become catalysed into action and why some aspirations remain unrealised.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    The D’Hondt method of vote calculation allows voters to select specific candidates from party lists, rather than just voting for the party generally, meaning that the rank order presentation of candidates is less influential than in traditional PR systems.

  2. 2.

    Of the eleven French interviewees one described beginning her political career via party membership, two discussed retreating to non-state level politics only after having participated at the state level, four had only participated at the non-state level at the time of the interview and, finally, four described participating at both levels simultaneously.

  3. 3.

    Of the total eleven French interviewees four wore the headscarf continually in their public life, five did not wear the headscarf in public and two interviewees ‘managed’ their head coverings—see Chapter 5 for further details.

  4. 4.

    Eleven of the Belgian interviewees noted being approached by political parties, however not all of these pursued these opportunities. This was due to personal preference, limited time and also fear of instrumentalization.

References

  • Al Momani, K., Dados, N., Maddox, M., & Wise, A. (2010). Political Participation of Muslims in Australia. North Ryde: University of Macquarie.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, C. J., & Guillory, C. A. (1997). Political Institutions and Satisfaction with Democracy: A Cross National Analysis of Consensus and Majoritarian Systems. The American Political Science Review, 91, 66–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arzheimer, K., & Carter, E. (2006). Political Opportunity Structures and Right-Wing Extremist Party Success. European Journal of Political Research, 45, 419–443.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baubérot, J. (2012). La Laïcité Falsifiée. Paris: Éditions la Découverte.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beauregard, K. (2013). Gender, Political Participation and Electoral Systems: A Cross National Analysis. European Journal of Political Research, 53, 617–634.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beauregard, K. (2014). Gender, Political Participation and Electoral Systems: A Cross National Analysis. European Journal of Political Research, 53, 617–634.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bertossi, C. (2012). French Republicanism and the Problem of Normative Density. Comparative European Politics, 10, 248–265.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brockington, D. (2004). The Paradox of Proportional Representation: The Effect of Party Systems and Coalitions on Individual’s Electoral Participation. Political Studies, 52, 469–490.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • CCIF. (2019). Rapport CCIF 2019: Rapport sur l’islamophobie pendant l’année 2018. Paris: CCIF.

    Google Scholar 

  • Celis, K., Erezel, S., Mugge, L., & Damstra, A. (2014). Quotas and Intersectionality: Ethnicity and Gender in Candidate Selection. International Political Science Review, 35, 41–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coene, G., & Longman, C. (2008a). Gendering the Diversification of Diversity. Ethnicities, 8, 302–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coene, G., & Longman, C. (2008b). Gendering the Diversification of Diversity—The Belgian Hijab (in) Question. Ethnicities, 8, 302–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deschouwer, K. (2009). The Politics of Belgium. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Easat-Daas, A. (2018). Islamophobia in Belgium: National Report 2018. In E. Bayrakli & F. Hafez (Eds.), European Islamophobia Report 2019. Istanbul: SETA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ersanilli, E., & Koopmans, R. (2011). Do Immigrant IntegrationPolicies Matter? A Three-Country Comparison Among Turkish Immigrants. West European Politics, 34, 208–234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fowler, J. H., & Kam, C. D. (2007). Beyond the Self: Social Identity, Altruism and Political Participation. The Journal of Politics, 69, 813–827.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghailani, D. (2010). The Policy on Gender Equality in Belgium. Brussels: European Parliament.

    Google Scholar 

  • Han, H. (2009). Moved to Action: Motivation, Participation and Inequality in American Politics. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hargreaves, A. G. (2007). Multi-Ethnic France: Immigration, Politics, Culture and Society. Abingdon: Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Haspelagh, M. (2012). The Belgian Burqa Ban—Unveiled from a Human rights Perspective. Master of Laws Masters: University of Ghent.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooghe, M. (2005). Ethnic Organisations and Social Movement Theory: The Political Opportunity Structures for Ethnic Mobilisation in Flanders. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 31, 975–990.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hooghe, M. (2007). Ethnic Organisations and Social Movement Theory: The Political Opportunity Structures for Ethnic Mobilisation in Flanders. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 31, 975–990.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howarth, D., & Varouxakis, G. (2014). Contemporary France: An Introduction to French Politics and Society. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Htun, M. (2004). Is Gender Like Ethnicity? The Political Representation of Identity Groups. Perspectives on Politics, 2, 439–458.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iversen, T., & Soskice, D. (2006). Electoral Institutions and the Politics Of Coalitions: Why Some Democracies Redistribute More Than Others. American Political Science Review, 100, 165–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karp, J. A., & Banducci, S. A. (2008). Political Efficacy and Participation in Twenty-Seven Democracies: How Electoral Systems Shape Political Behaviour. British Journal of Political Science, 38, 311–334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kitschelt, H. P. (1986). Political Opportunity Structures and Political Protest: Anti-Nuclear Movements in Four Democracies. British Journal of Political Science, 16, 57–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klandermans, B., & Oegama, D. (1987). Potentials, Networks, Motivations and Barriers: Steps Towards Participation in Social Movement. American Sociological Review, 52, 519–531.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koopmans, R. (1999). Political. Opportunity. Structure. Some Splitting to Balance the Lumping. Sociological Forum, 14, 93–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koutroubas, T., Vloeberghs, W., & Yanasmayan, Z. (2009). Political, Religious and Ethnic Radicalisation Among Muslims in Belgium. MicroCon, 1–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kulenovic, T. (2006). A Veil (Hijab) as a Public Symbol of a Muslim Woman Modern Identity. Collegium Antropologicum, 30, 713–718.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kunst, J. R., Sam, D. L., & Ulleberg, P. (2013). Perceived Islamophobia: Scale Development and Validation. International Journal of Intercultural Studies, 37, 225–237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuru, A. (2008). Secularism, State Policies, and Muslims in Europe: Analyzing French Exceptionalism. Comparative Politics, 41, 1–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laachir, K. (2008). State Islamophobia in France. In S. Sayyid & A. Vakil (Eds.), Thinking Thru’ Islamophobia (pp. 23–25). Leeds: Centre for Ethnicity and Racism Studies—University of Leeds.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ladner, A., & Miller, H. (1999). Do Voters Turn Out More Under Proportional Than Majoritarian Systems? The Evidence from Swiss Communal Elections. Electoral Studies, 18, 235–250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Legifrance. (1901). Loi du 1er juillet 1901 relative au contrat d’association (France). In Legifrance (Ed.). Paris, France: Legifrance.

    Google Scholar 

  • Legifrance. (2000). Loi n° 2000-493 du 6 juin 2000 tendant à favoriser l’égal accès des femmes et des hommes aux mandats électoraux et fonctions électives (France). In Legifrance (Ed.) 493. Paris, France: Legifrance.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leighley, J. (1995). Attitudes, Opportunities and Incentives: A Field Essay on Political Participation. Political Research Quarterly, 48, 181–209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lettinga, D., & Saharso, S. (2012). The Political Debates on the Veil in France and the Netherlands: Reflecting on National Immigration Models. Comparative European Politics, 10, 319–336.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martiniello, M. (2005). Political Participation, Mobilisation and Representation of Immigrants and Their Offspring in Europe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matland, R. E. (1998). Women’s Representation in National Legislatures: Developed and Developing Countries. Legislative Studies Quarterly, 23, 109–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, D. S., & Staggenborg, S. (1996). Movements, Countermovements, and the Structure of Political Opportunity. American Journal of Sociology, 101, 1628–1660.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, D. S., & Minkoff, D. C. (2004). Conceptualizing political opportunity. Social Forces, 82, 1457–1492.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mielants, E. (2006). The Long Term Historical Development of Racist Tendencies Within the Political and Social Context of Belgium. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 47, 313–334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J. M., & Krosnick, J. A. (2004). Threat As a Motivator of Political Activism: A Field Experiement. Political Psychology, 25, 507–535.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moniteur. (1921). Loi sur les associations sans but lucratif, les associations internationales sans but lucratif et les fondations (Belgium). In Moniteur (Ed.), 1921062701. Brussels, Belgium: Moniteur.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moniteur. (2011). Loi visant à interdire le port de tout vêtement cachant totalement ou de manière principale le visage 2011 (Belgium). Brussels, Belgium: Moniteur.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, R. (2004). Why Didn’t Parity Work? A Closer Examination of the 2002 Election Results. French Politics, 2, 347–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, R. (2009). Was 2007 a Landmark or a Letdown for Women’s Political Representation in France? Representation, 45, 29–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NelsonC., D. (1979). Ethnicity and Socioeconomic Status as Sources of Participation: The Case of ethnic Political Culture. The American Political Science Review, 73, 1024–1038.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nentwich, M. (1996). Opportunity Structures for Citizen’s Participation: The Case of the European Union. European Integration Online Papers, 0. Available: http://eiop.or.at/eiop/texte/1996-001.htm. Accessed 11 February 2014.

  • Norris, P. (1997). Choosing Electoral Systems: Proportional, Majoritarian and Mixed Systems. International Political Science Review, 18, 297–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norris, P. (2006). The Impact of Electoral Reform on Women’s Representation. Acta política, 41, 197–213.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramadan, T. (2004). Western Muslims and the Future of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramsay, R. L. (2003). French Women in Politics: Writing Power, Paternal Legitimization, and Maternal Legacies. New York: Berghan Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rootes, C. A. (1999). Political Opportunity Structures: Promise, Problems and Prospects. La Lettre de la maison Française d’Oxford, 10, 75–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roy, O. (2007). Secularism Confronts Islam. New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sénac-Slawinski, R. (2008). Justifying Parity in France after the Passage of the so-called Parity Laws and the Electoral Application of Them: The ‘Ideological Tinkering’of Political Party Officials (UMP and PS) and Women’s NGOs. French Politics, 6, 234–256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Severs, E. (2010). The Headscarf Debate in Debate in Belgium: Responsiveness and the Substantive Representation of Women. ECPR Graduate Conference. Dublin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shields, J. (2010). Support for Le Pen in France: Two Elections in Trompe l’oeil. Political Studies Association, 30, 61–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shvedova, N. (2005). Obstacles to Women’s Participation in Parliament. In Women in Parliament: Beyond Numbers (33–50). Stockholm, Sweden: International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silverstein, P. A. (2008). The Context of Antisemitism and Islamophobia in France. Patterns of Prejudice, 42, 1–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sinno, A. H. (2009). Muslim Underrepresentation in American Politics. In A. H. Sinno (Ed.), Muslims in Western Politics. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Streiff-Frénart, J. (2012). A French Dilemma: Anti Discrimination Policies and Minority Claims in Contemporary France. Comparative European Politics, 10, 283–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tarrow, S. (1996). States and Opportunities: The Political Structuring of Social Movements. In Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings (pp. 41–61). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Timmerman, C., Vanderwaeren, E., & Crul, M. (2003). The Second Generation in Belgium. International Migration Review, 37, 1065–1090.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vidal, D., & Bourtel, K. (2005). Le mal-être arabe. Enfants de la colonisation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warleigh, A. (2001). ‘Europeanizing’, Civil Society: NGOs as Agents of Political Socialisation. Journal of Common Market Studies, 39, 613–639.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warner, C. M. (2009). Cemetries and Mosques: Muslim Collective Action in Switzerland and France. Annual Meeting of the Association for the Study of Religion, Economics and Culture. Washington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warner, C. M., & Wenner, M. W. (2006). Religion and the Political Organisation of Muslims in Europe. Perspectives on Politics, 4, 457–479.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wittmann, D. (1983). Candidate Motivation: A Synthesis of Alternative Theories. The American Political Science Review, 77, 142–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yazbeck Haddad, Y., & Golson, T. (2007). Overhauling Islam: Representation, Construction and Cooption of ‘Moderate Islam’ in Western Europe. Journal of Church and State, 49, 487–515.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zemni, S. (2006). Islam Between Jihadi Threats and Islamist Insecurities? Evidence from Belgium and Morocco. Mediterranean Politics, 11, 231–253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zemni, S. (2011). The Shaping of Islam and Islamophobia in Belgium. Race and Class, 53, 28–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zibouh, F. (2011). La Représentation Politique des Musulmans à Bruxelles. Brussels Studies, 5, 1–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zibouh, F. (2013). Muslim Political Participation in Belgium: An Exceptional Political Representation in Europe. In J. S. Nielsen (Ed.), Muslim Political Participation in Europe. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. De Montfort University, Leicester, UK

    Amina Easat-Daas

Authors
  1. Amina Easat-Daas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Amina Easat-Daas .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Easat-Daas, A. (2020). Opportunities: Where Do the Opportunities for Muslim Women to Participate in Politics Lie?. In: Muslim Women’s Political Participation in France and Belgium . New Directions in Islam. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48725-6_3

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48725-6_3

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-48724-9

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-48725-6

  • eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation