Abstract
Stanisława Nikodym was the first Polish women to obtain a PhD in mathematics. She earned this degree from the University of Warsaw in 1925. Three years later, she presented a talk in the section on analysis and topology at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Bologna. She was the wife of Otton Nikodym. The couple was an example of a “collaborating couple” who supported each other in scientific research and academic life, but they had independent scientific careers. He began his scientific research at the age of 36, shortly after marrying Stanisława, who was then 26 and had just finished her studies. Otton Nikodym is one of the most renowned mathematicians of Polish origin, whereas her results in topology were interesting and cited on occasion. Unfortunately, she is almost unknown in Poland and abroad. The main goal of this paper is to present a very complicated history of Stanisława as a young woman in the Russian Empire, as an educated scholar in Poland, and as an emigrant to the United States who sorely missed Poland. It will also outline the story of Otton’s intellectual development and Stanisława and Otton’s marriage.
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Notes
- 1.
Some years earlier, Marie Curie and her sisters Helena and Bronisława had also studied there.
- 2.
- 3.
Antoni Liliental (1908–1940) graduated in chemistry from the Warsaw University of Technology and he was an assistant there. He was also an officer in the Polish Army. During WWII, he was captured by the Soviets and killed (with 4,400 other Polish officers) in Katyń in 1940. See “Rozpoznane ofiary katyńskie” (1943) and Liliental (2015).
- 4.
Warsaw was the capital city of the Kingdom of Poland, which was created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna. Until 1915, the Kingdom of Poland was under Russian occupation, with the Emperor of Russia functioning as the Polish King.
- 5.
Helena Szalay (Szalajowa, née Skłodowska, 1866–1961) was a sister of Marie Curie.
- 6.
This school, which was called “Pensja,” was a private high school for young women.
- 7.
Galicia (formal name: Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria) was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire from 1772 to 1918. After the reforms of 1867 in Austria, it became an ethnic Polish-administered autonomous country in the Empire with the capital city of Lvov.
- 8.
During the time of his studies, the formal name of the university was the “Imperial and Royal Franz I University in Lvov.” In the interwar period, it was called the “John Casimir University,” and now it is the “Ivan Franko National University of Lviv.”
- 9.
Wacław Sierpiński (1882–1969), who held a PhD in mathematics from the Jagiellonian University in Kraków, had also studied in Göttingen. He was a professor of mathematics at the Universities of Lvov and Warsaw and a leader of the “Warsaw School of Mathematics.”
- 10.
Marian Smoluchowski (1872–1917), a physicist, earned a PhD and habilitation from the University of Vienna. He studied in Glasgow, Paris, and Berlin as well. Smoluchowski is best known from the Einstein–Smoluchowski relation, the Feynman–Smoluchowski ratchet, and his interpretation of Brown motions. He was a professor at the University of Lvov and at the Jagiellonian University in Kraków.
- 11.
For details, see Prytula (2015).
- 12.
Józef Puzyna (1856–1919) held a PhD in mathematics from the University of Lvov and had studied in Berlin under L. Fuchs, K. Weierstrass, and L. Kronecker. He was a professor and rector at the University of Lvov.
- 13.
Jan Łukasiewicz (1878–1956), a logician, held a PhD from the University of Lvov and was a member of the “Warsaw-Lvov School of Logic.” He was a professor in Lvov, Warsaw, and Dublin, and he invented the so-called “Polish notation.”
- 14.
Kazimierz Twardowski (1866–1938), who earned a PhD and habilitation in philosophy from the University of Vienna, was the leader of the “Warsaw-Lvov School of Logic.” He was a professor at the University of Lvov.
- 15.
Franciszek Leja (1885–1979) held a PhD in mathematics from the Jagiellonian University and had also studied at the Sorbonne. He was a professor at the Technical University in Warsaw, the University of Warsaw, and the Jagiellonian University, and he was the founder and leader of the “Kraków School of Complex Analysis.”
- 16.
Jan Rajewski (1857–1906) earned a PhD in mathematics from the University of Lvov, where he later worked as a professor.
- 17.
Leja (1979): “W czasie moich studiów Uniwersytet Lwowski miał dwóch profesorów matematyki: J. Puzynę i J. Rajewskiego, z których drugi był wówczas na dłuższym urlopie zdrowotnym. Nie było przy tym żadnego docenta ani asystenta do prowadzenia ćwiczeń. W tych warunkach studia matematyczne musiały kuleć, bo nie wszystkie działy matematyki mogły być wykładane. Władze wiedeńskie nie interesowały się zapewne zbytnio szkolnictwem w Galicji. […] Wykłady fizyki teoretycznej we Lwowie prowadził wówczas młody docent Marian Smoluchowski, który przed kilkoma laty ukończył studia w Uniwersytecie Wiedeńskim. Na wykładzie tym dowiedziałem się po raz pierwszy, że pocisk wystrzelony z Ziemi pionowo w górę może nie wrócić na ziemię, gdy początkowa jego szybkość przekroczy 11 km na sekundę.”
- 18.
Joseph Stefan (1835–1893), a physicist, was a professor at the University of Vienna.
- 19.
Franz S. Exner (1849–1929), a mathematical physicist, was a professor at the University of Vienna.
- 20.
Gabriel Lippmann (1845–1921), a Nobel laureate in physics, was a professor at the Sorbonne.
- 21.
Emil Warburg (1846–1931) was a professor of physics in Strassburg, Freiburg, and Berlin.
- 22.
Smoluchowski’s position in support of women was special and direct but it was not common in the Polish scientific community in 1912 (or later). An English translation of his talk appeared in a special issue of the journal Acta Poloniae Historica 117 (2018), which is dedicated to the role of women in the sciences; see Smoluchowski (2018).
- 23.
Smoluchowski (1928): “Kobietom, które wstępują na drogę naukową, powinno się ułatwiać ich powołanie; powinny nareszcie zniknąć wszelkie zewnętrzne przeszkody, owe śmieszne przesądy, owe przestarzałe poglądy, które zamykają dostęp kobietom do niektórych instytucyj naukowych, które im utrudniają kształcenie się, pracę naukową, dostęp do katedr uniwersyteckich. Niech tu (jak na każdem innem polu) panuje zasada wolnej konkurencji. Oby ta konkurencja była jak najżywsza.” English translation Smoluchowski (2018).
- 24.
Her Polish name was Helena Bortkiewicz, and she was a sister of Władysław Bortkiewicz (Ladislaus von Bortkewitsch, 1868–1931), a professor of statistics in Berlin.
- 25.
In Polish: Aleksandra Stebnicka. She was a daughter of the Russian general and scientist Hieronim Stebnicki (1832–1897) and a sister of Olga, who was the mother of the Nobel laureate in physics Peter Kapitsa (1894–1984). Alexandrine worked at the Pulkovo Astronomical Observatory.
- 26.
It is possible that she was a daughter of Alexander Potylyzyn (1845–1905), a professor of chemistry at the Imperial University of Warsaw.
- 27.
For further details, see Tobies’ chapter in this book, Tobies (2020).
- 28.
During her time studying at the Sorbonne, she was known as Maria Skłodowska. Maria graduated in mathematics and physics from the Sorbonne. Some years earlier, her sister Bronisława Dłuska (1865–1939) had graduated in medicine from the same university.
- 29.
The evacuation meant that almost all professors, books, and equipment had to be transported to Rostov-on-Done. From 1915 to 1917, the university was called the Imperial Warsaw University in Rostov-on-Don, and the journals published by the university were printed under that name.
- 30.
“Facts and Figures,” University of Warsaw: www.mianowski.waw.pl/foundation/history/?lang=en (accessed September 12, 2017).
- 31.
Kasa im. Mianowskiego (The Mianowski Fund) was an organization of Polish scientists and intellectuals. The organization had been operating since 1881 in the Kingdom of Poland and its main goal was to support Polish scholars active in the humanities and sciences. In the mathematical sciences, over 50 titles were sponsored by The Mianowski Fund, including the well-known periodical Prace Matematyczno-Fizyczne. For more information about Kasa Mianowskiego, see Hübner et al. (2017).
- 32.
Stanisław Zaremba (1863–1942) graduated from the Saint Petersburg State Institute of Technology and the Sorbonne, where he received a PhD in mathematics. He was a professor at the Jagiellonian University in Kraków.
- 33.
All the replies were published in the newly founded journal entitled Nauka Polska: Jej potrzeby, organizacja i rozwój [“Polish Science: Its Needs, Organization, and Development”].
- 34.
Janiszewski (1919). See also Duda (2013): “[…] in 1918 he published a program which can be summarized in a few points: concentrating all active mathematicians in the country in one area of mathematics, presumably a new one (where there is no long tradition to learn nor needed are extensive libraries); founding a journal to support the group (the journal should be devoted specifically to the chosen area and should publish only in internationally recognized languages); working atmosphere was to be that of cooperation and common assistance.”
- 35.
Mazurkiewicz (1919). After WWII, the Mathematical Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences was created in Warsaw. Now the “Central Mathematical Library” operates there, just as Mazurkiewicz hoped it once would.
- 36.
On the collections of watercolor paintings held in Polish archives, see Wódz (2014).
- 37.
A poem titled “Jak roślina wyrwana z korzeni” [“Like an Uprooted Plant”] and its English translation were published in Ciesielska (2017).
- 38.
In the Kingdom of Poland, Russian was a language of school instruction.
- 39.
Alfred Rosenblatt (1880–1947) held a PhD in mathematics from the Jagiellonian University and had also studied in Vienna and Göttingen. He was a professor at the Jagiellonian University in Kraków and at St. Marco University in Lima, Peru.
- 40.
Antoni Hoborski (1879–1940) held a PhD in mathematics from the Jagiellonian University and had also studied in Paris and Göttingen. He was a professor of mathematics at the Jagiellonian University and at the Mining Academy in Kraków, where he served as the first rector.
- 41.
There was no technical university in Kraków. The Technical University in Lvov was the nearest one.
- 42.
Banach (1922) wrote: “M. Wilkosz et moi, nous avons certain résultats (que nous nous proponous publier plus tard) sur les opérations dont les domaines sont des esambles de fonctions duhameliennes, c’este-à-dire, qui sont les dérivées leurs fonctions primitives.”
- 43.
Hugo Steinhaus (1887–1972) earned a PhD in mathematics under Hilbert in Göttingen. A professor of mathematics at the University of Lvov and at Wrocław University, he was the founder and one of the leaders of the “Lvov School of Mathematics.”
- 44.
- 45.
Marian Mięsowicz (1907–1992) earned a PhD in physics from the Jagiellonian University and went on to become a professor at the Mining Academy in Kraków and a member of the Polish parliament.
- 46.
The son of Stanisław Zaremba, Stanisław Krystyn Zaremba (1903–1990) was a Polish, Canadian, and British mathematician and climber. He held a PhD in mathematics from the University of Vilnius. Before WWII, he worked at Vilnius and at the Jagiellonian University, and after the war he worked in Great Britain, Canada, and the United States.
- 47.
- 48.
Quoted from Maligranda (2003). For the original Polish, see Derkowska (1983): “Otto Nikodym tkwi w mej świadomości jako dość niezwykła indywidualność […]. W pamięci widzę go jako szczupłego, ciemnego bruneta z brodą. Był dopiero dwudziestoparoletni, ale różny od innych w tym wieku. Wyobcowany i daleki. […] Ascetycznie objętny, o wątłej strukturze fizycznej, nie podnosił głosu, ale mówił stale głosem beznamiętnym, niemniej wyraźnym […]. Wykład był interesujący przez konsekwencję uporządkowania treści […]. Otton Nikodym dawał prezentację wiedzy, taką jaka ona jest, bez włączania własnej osobowości.”
- 49.
Nikodym, O. (1912).
- 50.
Stanisław Ruziewicz (1889–1941) held a PhD in mathematics from the University of Lvov and had also studied in Göttingen. He was a professor at the University of Lvov and at the Academy of Foreign Trade in Lvov, where he also served as rector.
- 51.
Quoted from the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences—Stanisława and Otton Nikodym Papers: “Wczoraj poznałam jeszcze prof. Ruziewicza ze Lwowa. Cały wieczór spędziłam w towarzystwie prof. matematyki w cukierni wśród b. ożywionych dyskusji.”
- 52.
“Antoś” is a nickname for Antoni, Stanisława’s brother.
- 53.
It must have been at this point when Stanisława converted to Catholicism.
- 54.
Quoted from the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences—Stanisława and Otton Nikodym Papers: “Nieraz siedzą razem nad algiebrą i powiedział mi Otton, że jest ona ogromnie zdolna, ma męzki (sic!) umysł przy tak wybitnej kobiecości i dziecięcości.”
- 55.
Juliusz Paweł Schauder (1899–1943) held a PhD in mathematics from the University in Lvov and had also studied in Leipzig and Paris as a fellow of the Rockefeller Fundation. He lectured at Lvov Univeristy and was a professor at the Ukrainian University in Lviv.
- 56.
Schaefer (1993).
- 57.
“Ottonek” is a nickname for Otton.
- 58.
Quoted from the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences—Stanisława and Otton Nikodym Papers: “Sporo jednak skorzystałam tu w Krakowie. Dużo bardzo zawdzięczam Ottonkowi, który umie przejrzeć istotę rzeczy i ująć głęboko każdą partię matematyki. […] Teraz to zdążyć muszę, a zdać chcę dobrze, żeby znów nie wlec za sobą wspomnień przykrych i złych odpowiedzi.”
- 59.
Pavel Sergeyevich Alexandrov (1896–1962) was a Soviet mathematician. He was a professor at Moscow University and at the Stieklov Institute in Moscow.
- 60.
Tadeusz Ważewski (1894–1974) held a PhD in mathematics from the Sorbonne and was a professor of mathematics at the Jagiellonian University.
- 61.
“Ottoneczek” is another nickname for Otton.
- 62.
Quoted from the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences—Stanisława and Otton Nikodym Papers: “Ottonek mówi, że te wszystkie przeszkody los nam zsyła, byśmy umieli je zwalczać i tem więcej cenili zwycięstwo własne, gdy osiągnąwszy dyplomy potrzebne, do których dążymy, zaczniemy nowe twórcze życie. Ottonek wierzy, że będę robiła b. ładne rzeczy, bo widzi jak mi idzie praca nad matematyką. Istotnie, ostatnio moc skorzystałam, zawdzięczając oczywiście strasznie dużo swemu Ottonkowi, Ottonek mówi, że czuje iż wszystkie radości zbierają się razem i zdrowie ręki i mój i Jego doktorat. Zdaje się że Ottonka sukcesy naukowe stale rosną. Sierpiński pisał, że zakomunikował jeden rezultat Ottonka profesorowi Aleksandrowowi (w Moskwie), któremu się on b. podobał. […] Prócz tego pisał prof. Sierp., że prof Fréchet, znany matematyk francuski, zapytywał prof. Sierpińskiego o adres Ottonka, bo chce Mu przesłać swoją pracę, w której Jego nazwisko wielokrotnie cytuje. Ottonek miał wiele rezultatów Prof. Fréchet’a wcześniej, ale schował je do szuflady, część tylko zakomunikował kiedyś w kawiarni Ważewskiemu, który zacytował Ottona w Comptes Rendus (paryskie pismo naukowe), a Fréchet w ten sposób oparł się następnie na b. ładnym pomyśle mojego Ottoneczka.”
- 63.
See Księga dyplomów doktorskich and Piotrowski (2012).
- 64.
Published as Nikodym, S. (1925a).
- 65.
Published as Nikodym, O. (1925b).
- 66.
- 67.
Charatonik (1987).
- 68.
Recall that a space is said to be locally connected if each of its points has a neighborhood basis consisting of open connected sets.
- 69.
In 1885, Lars Edvard Phragmén (1881–1966) proved that the boundary of an open bounded subset of the plane contains a nondegenerate continuum. In 1910, L. E. J. Brouwer (1863–1937) showed that the boundary of each bounded component of the complement of each continuum K in the plane is itself a continuum (a generalization to any n -dimensional space was due to P. S. Alexandrov).
- 70.
Nikodym, S. (1925).
- 71.
- 72.
Nikodym, S. (1928a).
- 73.
Nikodym, S. (1928b).
- 74.
Samuel Dickstein (1851–1939), a Polish mathematician, graduated from the Imperial Warsaw University and was a professor at the University of Warsaw.
- 75.
Nikodym, S. (1930c).
- 76.
See Nikodym, O. (1930a).
- 77.
- 78.
Nikodym, S. (1935a).
- 79.
Nikodym, O. (1935b).
- 80.
Kazimierz Zarankiewicz (1902–1959) was a professor of mathematics and mechanics at the Technical University of Warsaw.
- 81.
Leja (1979): “Katedra matematyki, którą kierowałem na Wydziale Chemii, miała jeden etat asystenta. Etat ten zajmowali absolwenci matematyki Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego: najpierw Kazimierz Zarankiewicz przez około 8 lat, a następnie Stanisława Nikodymowa, żona mojego kolegi jeszcze z Uniwersytetu Lwowskiego Ottona Nikodyma, późniejszego docenta i profesora matematyki Uniwersytetów w Polsce i za granicą w U.S.A.”
- 82.
This was the result of a scandal. Two professors at the Polytechnic were running a chemical factory in Silesia. This factory created tremendous pollution, and a local community sent a letter to Franciszek Leja, then a dean of the faculty at the Polytechnic, but the letter was stolen from the post office. Some days later, Leja learned the whole story and he wanted to fire them. Leja was from Galicia, whereas these professors and most of the senate members of the Polytechnic were from the Russian part of Poland, and they decided to cover the problem up. Leja left his position in Warsaw and moved to Kraków.
- 83.
- 84.
- 85.
Nikodym & Nikodym (1936).
- 86.
Maria Loria (?–1937) was a doctor of medicine and a bacteriologist. She studied in Vienna, Berlin, and in the United States. For details, see Dadej (2019).
- 87.
Nikodym, S. (1934).
- 88.
Derkowska (1983): “Na początku okupacji, z narażeniem życia w tajemnicy przed profesorem młody człowiek wykradł z ratusza kartę Nikodyma.”
- 89.
See Tutajewska (2017).
- 90.
Nikodymowa (1946).
- 91.
- 92.
“Prexy Announces Appointments, New Promotions” (1948).
- 93.
“Prof. Nikodym Elected To Science Academy” (1949).
- 94.
- 95.
Nikodym &Nikodym (1957).
- 96.
Kurepa (1957).
- 97.
“Professor Nikodym Lectures in Europe” (1959).
- 98.
This book, The Mathematical Apparatus for Quantum-Theories: Based on the Theory of Boolean Lattices, was published by the Springer Publishing House in 1966. It was intended to be the first of two volumes, but the second volume remains unpublished.
- 99.
- 100.
Stanisława Nikodym Death Certificate.
- 101.
The author wishes to thank Witold Liliental (Canada), Dorota Liliental (Warsaw), Krystyna Kuperberg (Auburn University, USA), Dominik Abłamowicz and Bożena Ewa Wódz (Regional Museum in Sandomierz, Poland), Anna Olszewska (Registry Office, Tykocin, Poland), Iwona Dadej (Freie Universität, Berlin), Galina Sinkievich (Saint-Petersburg State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering), Dominik Wołącewicz (PIASA, New York), Piotr Grącikowski (University of Wrocław, Poland), Lech Maligranda (Luleå Technical University, Sweden), Walerian Piotrowski (Institute of Cardiology, Warsaw), Yaroslav Prytula (Ivan Franko University in Lviv), Edward Tutaj (Jagiellonian University in Kraków), Janusz Łysko (USA), John Greczek (USA), Virginia Transue (USA), and Mirosława Gołub (Tykocin, Poland).
Bibliography
Archival Sources
Archive of the University of Warsaw: “Stanisława Liliental.” AUW RP 1583.
Central Mathematical Library, Mathematical Archive, Mathematical Institute PAS.
Księga dyplomów doktorskich [Record of Doctoral Diplomas].
Archive of the University of Warsaw: “Stanisława Nikodym” (AUW KDD/WF–89),
“Otton Nikodym” (AUW KDD/WF–90).
Stanisław Nikodym Death Certificate, Registry Office in Tykocin, sygn. 2002123/00/AZ/1988/-/416854.
The Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences: Stanisława and Otton Nikodym Papers. PIASA Archives, Fond 77, sygn. 1, 2, 21, 22.
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Ciesielska, D. (2020). Stanisława and Otton Nikodym. In: Kaufholz-Soldat, E., Oswald, N. (eds) Against All Odds. Women in the History of Philosophy and Sciences, vol 6. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47610-6_6
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