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Women and Mathematics at the Universities in Prague

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Against All Odds

Part of the book series: Women in the History of Philosophy and Sciences ((WHPS,volume 6))

Abstract

The chapter is devoted to the largely unknown and mostly forgotten history of female candidates of Ph.D. degree in mathematics at the German University in Prague during its whole existence (1882–1945) and at the Czech University in Prague (1882–1920), respectively, at the Charles University in Prague (1920–1945). In the first part, a short description of the historical background (for instance, woman’s studies at the secondary schools and universities in the Czech lands, the rules and regulations of the process for obtaining the doctoral degrees as well as a statistical overview of all Ph.D. degrees in mathematics awarded at both universities in Prague) is given for a better understanding of the situation and some difficulties with the female doctoral procedures. In the second part, a detailed analysis of the successful doctoral procedures of three women graduated in mathematics at the German University in Prague, and the successful doctoral procedures of eight women (one graduated at the Czech University in Prague and seven graduated at the Charles University in Prague) and one unsuccessful doctoral procedure at the Charles University in Prague is presented with showing their families’ background, their life stories, professional activities, mathematical interests and results and fates of their families and relatives. The text is based on the deep and long time studies of various funds of the Archive of the Charles University in Prague, the Archive of the Czech Technical University in Prague, the National Archive of the Czech Republic (Prague), the Archive of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic (Prague), the Prague City Archives, the Jewish Museum in Prague and some special local archives which collected the register books of births, marriages and deaths, respectively, on the studies of the proceedings of secondary schools which are deposited in the special collection in the National Library of the Czech Republic (Prague-Hostivař).

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Notes

  1. 1.

    This research was supported by the project The Impact of WWI on the Formation and Transformation of the Scientific Life of the Mathematical Community (GA CR 18-00449S).

  2. 2.

    For more information, see, for instance, the entry on Prague in Ottův Slovník Naučný [Otto’s Encyclopedia].

  3. 3.

    Here we will not focus on these two universities because they did not award doctorates in mathematics during the first half of the twentieth century. For more information about the Czech Technical University in Prague and the German Technical University in Prague, see Velflík (1906–1925); Jílek and Lomič (1973); Tayerlová et al. (2004); and Birk (1931).

  4. 4.

    For more information about Charles University in Prague, see Havránek and Pousta (1997–1998). On the German University in Prague, see Seibt (1948); and Míšková (2002). For more information about mathematics and the mathematical community at the German University in Prague, see Bečvářová (2016a).

  5. 5.

    For further information about the American Ladies’ Club, see Secká (2013).

  6. 6.

    It should be mentioned that, in Switzerland, women were permitted to study at university as early as the 1860s (e.g. at the Technical School and at University of Zürich since 1864).

  7. 7.

    For more information, see Báhenská (2005); and Kopác (1968).

  8. 8.

    Some of the women to be mentioned were students there. For more information, see Uhrová (2012).

  9. 9.

    See some Czech newspapers from this time and especially the reports from the professors’ meetings at the Czech University and the German University in Prague, which are held in the archive of Charles University.

  10. 10.

    During the years 1882–1920, the university used the name Česká Karlo-Ferdinandova universita v Praze. The university used the name Universita Karlova as of the year 1920, when the act “Lex Mareš” was passed, codifying the mutual relationship of the two Prague universities. Later we will use the abbreviated form Czech University.

  11. 11.

    During the years 1882–1919, the university used the name Německá Karlo-Ferdinandova universita v Praze. From 1920 to 1939, it was called Německá univerzita v Praze, and beginning in 1939 it was known as Německá Karlova univerzita v Praze. Here we will use the abbreviated form German University.

  12. 12.

    Women were permitted to pass examinations for teaching proficiency since the year 1904. Until the end of the World War I, however, they were allowed to teach at secondary schools for girls only. After the formation of the Czechoslovak Republic, they could teach at secondary schools of all types.

  13. 13.

    The Vesna Association was established in 1870 in Brno as the so-called singers’ union. Later on, it was changed into an educational and manufacturing association for women. In 1886, thanks to Eliška Machová (1858–1926), an association activist and teacher, the association established a Czech school for continuing education for girls. This school soon changed into a technical school and a “literature school,” which was gradually expanded into a higher school for girls. In 1891, the number of the schools increased because a traditional boarding school for girls was established. In 1901, the school system was reorganized to a large extent and the following structure became standard: six-class public lycée (preparation for university studies), technical school (preparation for practical life, including a 1-year program and a 2-year program offering a special course for teachers of women’s works at public schools, courses for nurses at nursing schools, courses for cooks and housewives, and occasional courses on lace making, embroidery, hat-making, and ironing for female workers and servants), higher school for girls (preparation for administrative workers, clerks, home teachers, etc. offering education in trade, languages, music, and economics), and a boarding school for girls. For more information, see Kotzianová (1989).

  14. 14.

    See Rostočilová (1972); and Anonymous (1901).

  15. 15.

    See Anonymous (1902).

  16. 16.

    See Štrbáňová (2004). On the problems involved with the educating women of German nationality in the Czech lands, see Horská (1995).

  17. 17.

    The “Washington Declaration” is also known as the “Declaration of Independence of the Czechoslovak Nation”, which came into being in October of 1918. The future Czechoslovak President Tomáš Garigue Masaryk (1850–1937) wrote the declaration and submitted it to the U.S. Government and U.S. President, Thomas Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924). The declaration called for the union of the Czech and Slovak nations and the creation of the Czechoslovak Republic; it formulated basic civil rights and freedoms, internal and foreign policy, and the state system of the future independent Czechoslovakia.

  18. 18.

    For more information on the situation in the Czech lands and later in Czechoslovakia, see Bečvářová (2016b). For information on the situation in Germany, see Abele et al. (2004); and Tobies (2012). On the situation in the United States, see Green and LaDuke (2009).

  19. 19.

    This analysis is based on various sources housed in the archive of Charles University in Prague. See the list of archival sources in the bibliography. See also Výborná et al. (1965).

  20. 20.

    In the 1930s, the Nazi government was not interested in women studying at universities, and several laws were passed that made it even more difficult for them to study. Many of these laws, however, were already recalled during WWII. In the wartime, women filled the empty seats left by male students. The situation was the same in Prague at the German University. During the war, however, many women did not finish their studies.

  21. 21.

    In the Austrian Empire (or Austro-Hungarian Empire), it was possible to undergo the Ph.D. examination with international recognition at universities in Vienna, Graz, Innsbruck, Budapest, Černovce (Černovice, Czernowitz) and Kolozsvár (Klausenberg, Cluj, Kluž). Vienna was an especially popular destination for the Germans from the Czech lands. Only with minor difficulties of a purely formal nature, it was possible to obtain doctorates in Germany and France throughout the nineteenth century. The destination of our (German as well as Czech) mathematicians was usually Göttingen, Berlin, Munich, or Hamburg, though Czech mathematicians also went to Paris or Strasbourg.

  22. 22.

    For more information about mathematics and the mathematical community at the German University in Prague, see Bečvářová (2016a).

  23. 23.

    The foreigners included six Russians, one Latvian, and one Ukrainian (according to today’s structure of Europe). In the student catalogues or Ph.D. protocols, Russia (the Soviet Union) is given as the state of birth (or origin). They were all citizens of Russian nationality who had left a  Russia convulsed by civil war and political problems to settle in the Czechoslovak Republic.

  24. 24.

    This analysis is based on various sources held at the archive of Charles University in Prague. See the list of the archival sources in the bibliography. See also Tulachová (1965).

  25. 25.

    In the school year of 1920/1921, the newly established Faculty of Science of Charles University in Prague started its educational activities. The first 25 doctoral candidates were still registered at the Faculty of Philosophy. In the winter semester of the school year of 1939/1940, the Faculty of Science of Charles University initiated nine doctorate proceedings, though most of them were not completed until after the war. One of the doctoral proceedings was in mathematics.

  26. 26.

    At the Faculty of Science of Charles University in Prague, a 1-hour subsidiary Ph.D. examination in the philosophy of exact sciences replaced the former examination in classical philosophy. This change enabled a deeper connection between philosophy, history, logic, mathematics, and the natural sciences.

  27. 27.

    For more information see Výborná et al. (1965).

  28. 28.

    Female doctoral candidates wrote their theses under the supervision of G. A. Pick (two women), A. Winternitz (one woman), F. J. Studnička (one woman), K. Petr (one woman), M. Kössler (one woman), V. Hlavatý (three women), and E. Schoenbaum (three women).

  29. 29.

    See Bečvářová (2016a); and Bečvářová and Netuka (2015). For more information about mathematics at the Czech University in Prague, see Bečvářová (2008); and Bečvářová (née Němcová) (1998).

  30. 30.

    For example, we can mention F. A. Behrend, L. Bers, A. Erdélyi, P. Kuhn, E. Lammel, H. Löwig, K. Löwner, M. Pinl, and O. Varga. Their careers and works are discussed in Bečvářová (2016a); and Bečvářová and Netuka (2015).

  31. 31.

    See Bečvářová (2016a); and Bečvářová and Netuka (2015).

  32. 32.

    After World War I, the Imperial Russian University in Warsaw was made Polish, the German university in Černovce in Bukovina was abolished, the German university in Kolozsvár was made Hungarian, the German university in Dorpat (Jurjev, Tartu) was turned into an Estonian university, and the German schools in Lvov were abolished.

  33. 33.

    This analysis is based on various sources held at the archive of Charles University in Prague. See the list of the archival sources in the bibliography.

  34. 34.

    D. J. Struik (1974), p. xiv.

  35. 35.

    Powell and Frankenstein (2001), p. 43.

  36. 36.

    D. J. Struik (1974), p. xiv. F. Enriques published a modern Italian translation of Euclid’s Elements; see Enriques (1930–1932).

  37. 37.

    Davis et al. (2001), p. 585. The article in question is Struik and Struik (1928).

  38. 38.

    Quoted from http://www.tufts.edu/as/math/struik.html (accessed July 20, 2017).

  39. 39.

    S. R. Struik (1977).

  40. 40.

    See https://www.zbmath.org/?q=ai:struik.s-r, ZBL 0367.50004 (accessed April 12, 2017).

  41. 41.

    See review MR0513833 at http://www.ams.org/mathscinet (accessed February 5, 2017).

  42. 42.

    S. R. Struik (1977), p. 143.

  43. 43.

    Oene Bottema (1901–1992) was a Dutch mathematician who defended his Ph.D. thesis Figuur van vier kruisende rechte lijnen at the University in Leiden in 1927 under the supervision of Willem van der Woude (1876–1974) and taught at the Technical University in Delft.

  44. 44.

    See Bottema (1978), pp. 9–10.

  45. 45.

    See http://www.tufts.edu/as/math/struik.html. (accessed 21 July 2017). For more information on Saly Ruth Ramler Struik see Bečvářová (2018).

  46. 46.

    I was able to piece together this information about Josefine Mayer (John-Frankl-Keller) from official records written in the personal cards of her family, from her passports, and from the police registers of Prague citizens that are kept in the National Archive of the Czech Republic.

  47. 47.

    See Fabiánová (1918). J. Grim helped her at the beginning of her career by advising her in how to teach, how to organize her lectures, which books she could buy, etc.

  48. 48.

    For more information on the activities of the Union, see Bečvářová (2008).

  49. 49.

    For relevant mathematical and historical commentary, see Hykšová (2003).

  50. 50.

    This small amount of information on Jarmila Šimerková Iglauerová stems from official records written in the personal cards of her family, from her passports, and from the police registers of Prague citizens that are housed in the National Archive of the Czech Republic.

  51. 51.

    Otto Fischer studied mathematics and physics at the Faculty of Science of Charles University in Prague. In 1933, he defended his Ph.D. thesis in mathematics and became a doctor of natural sciences. In 1935, he obtained a position in the Ústřední psychotechnický ústav in Prague (Central Psychotechnical Institute in Prague) and devoted himself to statistical research. In September of 1943, he was deported to the Jewish ghetto in Terezín. In the horrendous conditions of the ghetto and under the permanent Nazi terror, he taught Jewish children mathematics, history, literature, and arts and tried to improve their lives. He also organized cultural activities. From Terezín, he was sent to the concentration camp in Auschwitz-Birkenau. He survived because he was sent as a young and strong man to work under inhuman conditions in the concentration camp in Gross-Rosen. After WWII, he worked at the Mathematical Institute of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences. For more information, see Vondráček and Šidák (1976).

  52. 52.

    I obtained information on Věra Čechová Fischerová from archival material held in the National Archive of the Czech Republic and from an interview with her son Jan Fischer.

  53. 53.

    We have only modest information about Ludmila Illingerová-Městková and her relatives thanks to documents preserved in the National Archives of the Czech Republic.

  54. 54.

    Illingerová (1933).

  55. 55.

    See Jahrbuch über die Fortschritte der Mathematik, JFM 59.0553.02, and the French abstract in the journal Zentralblatt für Mathematik und ihre Grenzgebiete, ZBL 0006.17806.

  56. 56.

    Illingerová (1935a).

  57. 57.

    Illingerová (1936).

  58. 58.

    Illingerová (1935b).

  59. 59.

    See the review in Jahrbuch über die Fortschritte der Mathematik, JMF 61.0967.03.

  60. 60.

    Městková-Illingerová (1942).

  61. 61.

    Bydžovský et al. (1940). The problem is on page 7. This textbook was used in Czechoslovakia from the beginning of the 1930s until the end of the 1950s.

  62. 62.

    I obtained this modest information about Jiřina Frantíková Chytilová from archival documents held in the National Archive of the Czech Republic and from personal correspondence with her niece.

  63. 63.

    Frantíková (1937).

  64. 64.

    See Zentralblatt für Mathematik und ihre Grenzgebiete, ZBL 0018.15903.

  65. 65.

    Frantíková (1936/1937).

  66. 66.

    See Jahrbuch über die Fortschritte der Mathematik, JFM 63.1122.04.

  67. 67.

    See Zentralblatt für Mathematik und ihre Grenzgebiete, ZBL 0016.31601.

  68. 68.

    She taught mathematics at various secondary schools in Prague even after her retirement age. In fact, my husband was one of her students.

  69. 69.

    I obtained this modest information about Libuše Kučerová Tuháčková from documents held at the National Archives of the Czech Republic and from interviews with her pupils and students.

  70. 70.

    Kučerová (1933).

  71. 71.

    See Jahrbuch über die Fortschritte der Mathematik, JFM 59.0554.01.

  72. 72.

    Kučerová (1936).

  73. 73.

    Kučerová (1938).

  74. 74.

    See Jahrbuch über die Fortschritte der Mathematik, JFM 64.0661.05.

  75. 75.

    For more information on Zdeněk Pírko, see Jarkovský (1984).

  76. 76.

    Kofránková (1936).

  77. 77.

    See Jahrbuch über die Fortschritte der Mathematik, JFM 62.1467.07.

  78. 78.

    See Zentralblatt für Mathematik und ihre Grenzgebiete, ZBL 0016.04204.

  79. 79.

    Because of the origin of her parents, one female candidate had to apply for Czechoslovak citizenship in the administrative procedure. She was born in Galicia. Her parents came to Prague in the 1890s and they were Jews of German-Ukrainian nationality with no roots or relatives in the Czech lands.

  80. 80.

    The majority of male candidates for doctoral degrees in mathematics also descended from socially well-situated families (until the 1930s). To compare our statistics with the situation in other countries, see Tobies (2008), where the author also points out and analyses different influential factors on the careers of women.

  81. 81.

    Let us add that male doctoral candidates in mathematics usually studied only at a university; they did not attend special lectures at a technical university.

  82. 82.

    The scope of interest of male doctoral candidates in mathematics was not as wide; they did not stray from their professional interests and they preferred to specialize more deeply in mathematics or physics.

  83. 83.

    Both German doctoral candidates in mathematics passed teaching examinations in the subjects of mathematics/physics.

  84. 84.

    Four of the Czech doctoral candidates in mathematics passed teaching examinations in the subjects of mathematics/descriptive geometry, one candidate in mathematics/physics, and one in mathematics/physical education.

  85. 85.

    Four of the nine Czech candidates studied insurance mathematics at the Czech Technical University in Prague, and the other three studied “a course for prospective teachers of descriptive geometry”. I should mention that the study of insurance mathematics was, in the 1920s and 1930s, relatively popular among women because it enabled them to be prepared for various professions in the fields of insurance, banking, and accounting. The course was especially popular because it lasted only 2 years.

  86. 86.

    Male doctors and doctoral candidates in mathematics had many more professional opportunities than their female colleagues. They could work as assistants and later as private docents or professors at universities; they could become secondary school teachers (and later directors of secondary schools or higher schools, school inspectors, clerks at the Ministry of Education etc.); and they could become senior officials at banks, insurance companies, or businesses or work in the research departments of large industrial enterprises (such as ČKD in Prague or Škoda in Pilsen).

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      1. Department of Applied Mathematics, Faculty of Transportation Sciences, Czech Technical University in Prague, Na Florenci 25, 11000, Prague 1, Czech Republic

        Martina Bečvářová

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        Nicola M.R. Oswald

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      Bečvářová, M. (2020). Women and Mathematics at the Universities in Prague. In: Kaufholz-Soldat, E., Oswald, N. (eds) Against All Odds. Women in the History of Philosophy and Sciences, vol 6. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47610-6_3

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