Abstract
For centuries now, a great deal and large variety of quantitative data from anthropological and biomedical research on women has been conducted, collected, classified and interpreted. How is it that some (male) scientists read this same data and research as indicating that women are intellectually inferior to men while others see a form of ambiguous diversity and still others equality? Following the invitation extended by this project’s editors to build a bridge between women’s past and present in maths, in this chapter I move forward and back in time to discuss how, by interweaving arguments about present-day data with a gendered history of experts in maths (and science), we might achieve a better understanding of both the history of men and women in maths and science, and of maths and science as cultures which are socially constructed. To face the problems lying in wait for humanity, from migration in a climate-changed world to the challenge of providing energy for billions of people, we need good, abundant maths, science and technology embedded in good, abundant politics. It would appear that the only way forward is to train young people—men and women—to reason freely about science as a social culture. And indeed, this is probably the same path that will allow us to overcome sex and race, as well as gender, ethnicity and class, in science. More realistically, young people engaging with science through this approach will be able to appreciate how such elements may affect both the collection and the interpretation of data: a phenomenon we need to keep abreast of given that it is just as relevant for mathematicians and natural scientists as it is for historians and social scientists.
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Notes
- 1.
For a discussion of Aristotle in this context, see Sissa (1994), pp. 46–81.
- 2.
Darwin (1981).
- 3.
The first English translation, with an introduction by W. D. Morrison, was Lombroso and Ferrero (1895). Lombroso and Ferrero’s book (1st orig. Italian edition 1893) immediately achieved international circulation. William Douglas Morrison (1852–1943) was a criminologist and prison chaplain. For a discussion of Lombroso and Ferrero’s book on women, see Jenny Boucard’s Chap. 3.1.
- 4.
Pomata (2013).
- 5.
- 6.
The 10-page anti-diversity manifesto (2017) by former Google software engineer James Damore is easy to find on the Web.
- 7.
By now the literature on this issue is extraordinarily extensive, I limit my citations to Margaret W. Rossiter’s three volumes: 1982. Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press; 1995. Before Affirmative Action, 1940–1972; 2012. Forging a New World since 1972.
- 8.
For a landmark anthology of writings on science studies, see Biagioli (1999).
- 9.
Richard Feynman spoke about this point in one of his well-known 1964 lectures. See Richard Feynman Messenger Lectures, Cornell University, available at http://www.cornell.edu/video/playlist/richard-feynman-messenger-lectures (this and following sites were last accessed December 31, 2017).
- 10.
Similarly, early modern historians have often emphasized the anti-feminist role played by medical argument in the so-called Querelle des Femmes. For an important and fresh perspective on the crucial role that medicine played on the pro woman side, see Pomata (2013).
- 11.
- 12.
See articles by Evelleen Richards, instant classics cited in the following notes, and in particular her definitive Darwin and the Making of Sexual Selection, Richards (2017). These sources are also valuable for the extremely rich bibliography they provide.
- 13.
Keller (1985).
- 14.
World Economic Forum (2017). The Global Gender Gap Report 2017, https://www.weforum.org/reports/the-global-gender-gap-report-2017; OECD (2017). Mathematics performance (PISA), https://data.oecd.org/pisa/mathematics-performance-pisa.htm.
- 15.
OECD (2015). Qatar. Student performance (PISA 2015), see at http://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=QAT&treshold=10&topic=PI.
- 16.
The GGG Report (2017), data on Italy at http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2017/dataexplorer/#economy=ITA.
- 17.
- 18.
- 19.
Govoni and Franceschi (2014). Pnina G. Abir-Am, Evelyn Fox Keller, Georgina Ferry, Paula Findlen, and Londa Schiebinger contributed autobiographical essays to this volume.
- 20.
For a bibliography on this point, see Govoni (2014).
- 21.
Mazzotti (2007).
- 22.
Furinghetti, F. Emma Castelnuovo, MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews at http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Castelnuovo_Emma.html.
- 23.
Merton (1938).
- 24.
Scott (1988).
- 25.
Hirsch and Keller, eds. (1990).
- 26.
- 27.
Loria (1936), p. 465.
- 28.
Crane (1972).
- 29.
- 30.
In Italy, Lombroso and Ferrero’s volume was reprinted in 1915, 1923 and again in 1927.
- 31.
Govoni (2013).
- 32.
- 33.
Huxley to Charles Lyll, March 17, 1860, in Huxley (1901).
- 34.
European Commission (2017). Report on equality between women and men in the EU. Brussels. doi: 10.2838/52591; National Science Foundation (2017). Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering, https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2017/nsf17310/static/downloads/nsf17310-digest.pdf.
- 35.
Gaëlle Ferrant & Alexandre Kolev (OECD Development Centre), 2016. The economic cost of gender-based discrimination in social institutions, at the address https://www.oecd.org/dev/development-gender/SIGI_cost_final.pdf.
- 36.
Istat (Istituto Nazionale di Statistica), 2016. Focus Le carriere femminili nel settore universitario, 5, at http://ustat.miur.it/media/1091/notiziario_1_2016.pdf.
- 37.
Public Law 96-516, 12/12/1980, https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-94/pdf/STATUTE-94-Pg3007.pdf.
- 38.
Max Roser & Esteban Ortiz-Ospina (2017). ‘Global Rise of Education’. Published online at University of Oxford, OurWorldInData.org. Retrieved from: https://ourworldindata.org/global-rise-of-education.
- 39.
For a summary of the latest data from Europe, see European Commission (2017). Eurydice Brief. Modernization of Higher Education in Europe. Academic Staff 2017, doi: 10.2797/806308.
- 40.
2017 Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering, pp. 6–7; EC-DGR, European Commission, Directorate-General for Research and Innovation […], She Figures. 2015, Statistics and Indicators on Gender Equality in Science, Brussels: European Communities, p. 5, available here: https://ec.europa.eu/research/swafs/pdf/pub_gender_equality/she_figures_2015-final.pdf.
- 41.
Richard Samans & Saadia Zahida, Preface, World Economic Forum, The Global Gender Gap Report 2016, v, http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GGGR16/WEF_Global_Gender_Gap_Report_2016.pdf.
- 42.
Noble (1993) continues to represent a classic on this long durée issue.
- 43.
- 44.
Ensmenger (2015), see Fig. 3 on page 63.
- 45.
Ensmenger (2015).
- 46.
Lister (2017).
- 47.
Brand (1972), pp. 33–39.
- 48.
Istat (2015). L’inserimento professionale dei dottori di ricerca, p. 2, see at https://www.istat.it/it/files/2015/01/Dottori-di-ricerca_DEF.pdf?-?title=Inserimento+professionale+dei+dottori+di+ricerca+-+21%2Fgen%2F2015+Testo+integrale.pdf.
- 49.
Math data, PISA (2012), analysed in Education at a Glance 2014, http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/download/9614031e.pdf?expires=-=1483004034&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=201186F0848C0D63A13BCAF5187BD896; The GGG 2017 Report at http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2017.pdf.
- 50.
For a detailed analysis of Italian data, see INVALSI. Presentazione Indagine internazionale 2015 OCSE- PISA Principali risultati Italia, at the http://www.invalsi.it/invalsi/doc_evidenza/2016/061216/Sintesi_Indagine_PISA2015.pdf.
- 51.
OECD, The ABC of Gender Equality Education 77, see at https://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results-gender-eng.pdf.
- 52.
This took place in particular in certain co-educational colleges where science held a crucial place in the curriculum. See Noble (1993), Chap. 10.
- 53.
- 54.
Darwin (1981), vol. 2, p. 327.
- 55.
Darwin (1981), vol. 2, p. 326.
- 56.
Darwin (1981), vol. 2, p. 327.
- 57.
- 58.
Schiebinger (2004).
- 59.
Findlen (1993).
- 60.
Lange (1890).
- 61.
Regarding women and higher education in Germany, see Mazón (2003).
- 62.
- 63.
Noble (1993).
- 64.
- 65.
Richards (1998).
- 66.
Darwin (1981), vol. 2, p. 328.
- 67.
Dewey (1885), p. 341.
- 68.
Dewey (1910).
- 69.
Pancaldi (1991).
- 70.
“La maggior libertà che hanno le signorine [negli Stati Uniti] da principio urtava un po’ i miei sentimenti di vecchio europeo, ma dopo, entrando più addentro nelle intimità della vita famigliare, cambiai di parere; ora sono convinto che senza la libertà non esiste la padronanza di noi stessi, e credo che si debba concedere una indipendenza assoluta alla donna, per frenare e moderare tutti gli impulsi che a noi sembrano più temibili”, Mosso (1903), pp. 325–326.
- 71.
“Gli oppositori della donna gridavano che mettendola ad insegnare si doveva abbassare lo standard […] dell’insegnamento; […] ora tutto è cambiato. Le previsioni non si verificarono; ed i maestri desiderano che sui banchi della scuola e nelle università vi siano delle donne”, Mosso (1903), p. 333.
- 72.
Rossiter (1984).
- 73.
Statistical report, 2016. Focus. Gli immatricolati nell’a.a. 2015/2016 il passaggio dalla scuola all’università dei diplomati nel 2015, 6, http://statistica.miur.it/data/notiziario_2_2016.pdf.
- 74.
Miur data regarding students enrolled in university during the 2007–2008 academic year, http://statistica.miur.it/Data/uic2008/Gli_Studenti.pdf.
- 75.
Focus. Gli immatricolati nell’a.a. 2015/2016 il passaggio dalla scuola all’università dei diplomati nel 2015 http://statistica.miur.it/data/notiziario_2_2016.pdf (data on p. 5 and p. 11).
- 76.
Ministero dell’Università e della Ricerca—Ufficio di Statistica. Processing of data from the Anagrafe Nazionale degli Studenti Universitari, published at (data updated as of July 4, 2017) http://anagrafe.miur.it/laureati/cerca.php.
- 77.
Almalaurea. Indagine Almalaurea 2015 sui dottori di ricerca. Tra performance di studio e mercato del lavoro https://www.almalaurea.it/sites/almalaurea.it/files/docs/info/cs_almalaurea_dottoridiricerca-ottobre-2015-def.pdf.
- 78.
Source: Miur database at http://cercauniversita.cineca.it/php5/docenti/cerca.php search in the “Macrosector 0/1A—Mathermatics” (search conducted November 14, 2017).
- 79.
Source: Miur database at http://cercauniversita.cineca.it/php5/docenti/cerca.php search in the “Macrosector 11—History, philosophy, pedagogy and psychology” (search conducted November 14, 2017).
- 80.
Miur, Ufficio Statistico (2016). Focus. Le carriere femminili nel settore universitario, see at http://statistica.miur.it/Data/notiziario_1_2016.pdf.
- 81.
In terms of enrolment, the phenomenon of women overtaking men was already evident in the 1920s: in the academic year 1921–1922, men enrolled in programmes to graduate in literature and philosophy numbered 1,547 as compared to 1,300 women, and in the following academic year there were 1,387 women enrolled in the same courses as compared to 1,257 men. Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri, Istituto Centrale di Statistica, 1926. Annuario Statistico Italiano, second series, v. IX, years 1922–1925, pp. 97–99. Rome: Stabilimento Poligrafico per l’Amministrazione dello Stato.
- 82.
Source: Miur database at http://statistica.miur.it/scripts/PersonaleDiRuolo/vdocenti1.asp (search conducted November 14, 2017).
- 83.
Istat (2001). Donne all’Università, Bologna: il Mulino; Women and Men in Scientific Careers: New Scenarios, Old Asymmetries, Special issue. In: Polis. Ricerche e studi su società e politica in Italia, 1, 2017. For a contextualizing and long durée approach, see Govoni (2015).
- 84.
See, for example, some outstanding presentations made as part of the Symposia Leaders in Science and Engineering: The Women of MIT (March 28, 2011—Tuesday, March 29, 2011) and in particular Nancy H. Hopkins, Keynote: The Status of Women in Science and Engineering at MIT, at http://mit150.mit.edu/symposia/leaders-science-engineering.html. In relation to this point, see Abir-Am (2014).
- 85.
This research has been carried out at the Cognitive Neuroscience, Gender and Health Laboratory coordinated by Gillian Einstein. For a discussion of these issues, see Einstein (2007). Besides, see the recently launched (March 2017) journal Gender and the Genome edited by Marianne J. Legato. For a European approach to the issue, see European Commission (2013). Gendered Innovations: How Gender Analysis Contributes to Research, Report of the Expert Group “Innovation through Gender”, Chairperson: Londa Schiebinger, Rapporteur: Ineke Klinge, at the address https://ec.europa.eu/research/science-society/document_library/pdf_06/-/gendered_innovations.pdf.
- 86.
By now the literature on the science wars has become too vast to cite; see Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, “Science Wars”, at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_wars.
- 87.
Jones (2002).
- 88.
Regarding this approach, see the always fresh classic: Latour (1987).
- 89.
Summers, Remarks at NBER Conference, at the address http://www.harvard.edu/president/-/speeches/summers_2005/nber.php. See Abir-Am (2000); and Abir-Am (2014).
- 90.
Einstein (2012).
- 91.
OECD, PISA 2015 Results Excellence and Equity in Education, volume I (data published on December 6, 2016), quote on p. 3.
- 92.
- 93.
- 94.
OECD (2014). PISA 2012: Results in Focus What 15-year-olds know and what they can do with what they know, p. 23, http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results-overview.pdf.
- 95.
Watson (2007), p. 317.
- 96.
Watson (2007), p. 318.
- 97.
Keller (1977).
- 98.
Feynman (1981–1982).
- 99.
Zippel (2017).
- 100.
Keller (2014).
- 101.
- 102.
For one the most recent editorial dedicated to this issue in Nature, see “Many junior scientists need to take a hard look at their job prospects.” In: Nature 550, 429 (October 26, 2017), doi: 10.1038/550429a.
- 103.
It is my great pleasure to thank Renate Tobies, Tinne Hoff Kjeldsen, and in particular Nicola Oswald and Eva Kaufholz-Soldat, for inviting me to join this project. The week we spent in January 2017 in the snowy silence of the Oberwolfach Institute was simply perfect, both for the inspiring discussions we shared and our nightly solitary work in the Institute’s dream library. A special thanks to the editors, the scientific committee and the anonymous referees for their generous and useful comments.
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Govoni, P. (2020). Hearsay, Not-So-Big Data and Choice: Understanding Science and Maths Through the Lives of Men Who Supported Women. In: Kaufholz-Soldat, E., Oswald, N. (eds) Against All Odds. Women in the History of Philosophy and Sciences, vol 6. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47610-6_10
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