Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Internationality: Women in Felix Klein’s Courses at the University of Göttingen (1893–1920)

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Against All Odds

Part of the book series: Women in the History of Philosophy and Sciences ((WHPS,volume 6))

Abstract

This contribution evaluates previous scholarship on the beginning of women’s study of mathematics at German universities and analyzes the special efforts of Felix Klein to advance this cause. It will also be shown when the first female mathematicians joined the German Mathematical Society, which was founded in 1890, and when female authors first published in the journal Mathematische Annalen, the chief editor of which was Klein himself. The study is based on materials from Klein’s archive in Göttingen, especially on the lists of students enrolled in his courses and on the protocols from his mathematics seminars. A special result of our research is that non-German women paved the way in Germany. Foreign women, like men, wanted to be qualified to study where the highest standards of scholarship could be expected, for some time they attempted to gain access to German universities even while official status as students could not yet be granted to them.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    See Tina Richter (2015), pp. 18–20; and Tobies (2016).

  2. 2.

    Zeuthen and Johan Ludvig Heiberg (1854–1928) supervised Thyra Eibe (1866–1955), the first women in Denmark to complete her doctorate in mathematics in 1895 (see below).

  3. 3.

    As early as 1878, Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847–1930) was admitted to study at Johns Hopkins University under the supervision of the British mathematician Sylvester (see Fenster and Parshall (1994), p. 234). Felix Klein was asked to succeed Sylvester in 1883, when the latter returned to Great Britain.

  4. 4.

    See Tobies and Rowe (1990).

  5. 5.

    Kovalevskaya’s Ph.D. examination records are published in Tollmien (1997); see also Eva Kaufholz-Soldat’s dissertation “A Divergence of Lives. Zur Rezeption Sofja Kowalewskajas um die Wende vom 19. zum 20. Jahrhundert,” Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz.

  6. 6.

    On the support that Kovalevskaya received from French and Italian mathematicians, see Coen (2012), pp. 477, 509–515.

  7. 7.

    Kovalevskaya’s thesis was published as “Zur Theorie der partiellen Differentialgleichungen,” Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik 80 (1875), pp. 1–32. Klein’s remarks to Lie about the thesis begin as follows: “What do you think about Sophia Kovalevskaya’s study in Borchardt’s journal? By means of direct series expansion, she proves the existence of integrals as well as their definiteness within certain limits.” Quoted from a letter from Klein to Lie dated July 8, 1875.

  8. 8.

    Regarding the laws governing the enrollment of women in several German states, see the details in Tobies (1997) and Birn (2015).

  9. 9.

    Marie Gernet became a teacher at the first German secondary school for girls where it was possible to take the Abitur, the examinations required for entrance to German universities. On the school, which was founded in Karlsruhe in 1896, see Tobies (2001a, b).

  10. 10.

    See Elisabeth Mühlhausen’s Chap. II.1.

  11. 11.

    See Footnote 2. Regarding the development of the Danish educational system, see Lisbeth Fajstrup, Anne Katrine Gjerløff and Tinne Hoff Kjeldsen’s Chap. III.3.

  12. 12.

    On MacKinnon (married name: Fitch, as of 1901) and other early North-American women in mathematics, see Fenster and Parshall (1994), p. 235; and Green and LaDuke (2009).

  13. 13.

    See Davis’s archive of female mathematicians, which includes a chronological list of graduates from the University of Cambridge (1873–1940): http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Davis/Indexes/xCambridge.html.

  14. 14.

    See Grinstein and Campbell (1987); see also Parshall (2015).

  15. 15.

    Charlotte Angas Scott, “A Proof of Noether’s Fundamental Theorem,” Mathematische Annalen 52 (1899), pp. 593–597.

  16. 16.

    Toepell (1991), p. 354. It was not until its one hundredth anniversary that the DMV would elect a female mathematician to its council, in 1991: the algebraist Ina Kersten, a scholarly descendent of Emmy Noether. She became president from 1995 to 1997.

  17. 17.

    [UBG] Cod. Ms. Klein XI, p. 947.

  18. 18.

    Ragsdale contributed to Hilbert’s “sixteenth problem” (Ragsdale conjecture), as did Hilbert’s German doctoral students Margarete Kahn and Klara Löbenstein.

  19. 19.

    On Elisabeth Klein (married name: Staiger), see Tobies (2008). Regarding women mathematicians in Germany who had to emigrate because of the Nazi dictatorship, see Tobies (2011b); and Siegmund-Schultze (2009).

  20. 20.

    Regarding Zapolskaya’s biography, see Makeev (2011). She received a teaching position at the University of Moscow, published her results in books, and became the first Russian woman with a postdoctoral degree and a professorship in 1905. The professional path that led her there was winding, however. She had been the headmaster of a secondary school and a lecturer at institutions in Moscow, Ryazan, Saratov, and Yaroslavl.

  21. 21.

    See Tobies (1999); and König et al. (2014).

  22. 22.

    This is based on a lecture given by Catherine Goldstein at the University of Würzburg in October of 2015.

  23. 23.

    See https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanny_Cedercreutz (accessed October 30, 2016).

  24. 24.

    Toepell (1991), p. 254.

  25. 25.

    Singer (2003), p. 93.

  26. 26.

    Toepell (1991), p. 75.

  27. 27.

    See https://www.agnesscott.edu/lriddle/women/cowley.htm (accessed August 20, 2016).

  28. 28.

    See Toepell (1991), p. 291; and Jones (2009), p. 91.

  29. 29.

    Laura Pisati, “Sulla estensione del metodo di Laplace alle equazioni differenziali lineari di ordine qualunque con due variabili indipendenti,” Rendiconti del Circulo Matematico di Palermo 20 (1905), pp. 344–374. See further Ganzha et al. (2008).

  30. 30.

    A memorial for Pisati was held during Section I of the Congress in Rome; see Curbera (2009), p. 44. At the first International Congress of Mathematicians (ICM, Zurich, in 1897), four female mathematicians took part: Iginia Massarini (Rome), Vera von Schiff (St. Petersburg), Charlotte Angas Scott (Bryn Mawr), and Charlotte Wedell (Göttingen); see Eminger (2015), p. 70. On Massarini, see Carbone and Talamo (2010). The first woman to give a talk at an ICM was H. P. Hudson, who spoke at Cambridge in 1912 (see Eminger (2015), p. 70).

  31. 31.

    Emmy Noether, “Zur Invariantentheorie der Formen von \( n \) Variablen,” Jahresbericht der Deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung 19 (1910), pp. 147–154.

  32. 32.

    See Tobies (2006).

  33. 33.

    While writing a popular science book on mathematics, which makes use of Klein’s educational reform ideas and his conceptual coupling of precision and approximation mathematics, Geiringer wrote two letters to Klein, dated November 7, 1921 and December 3, 1921 (see [UBG] Cod. MS Felix Klein 9, pp. 307–308). Klein had read the manuscript and sent comments to her (see Geiringer (1922), pp. 93–95).

  34. 34.

    See Toepell (1991), pp. 120, 381, 424; and Senechal (2013).

  35. 35.

    See Parshall and Rowe (1994).

  36. 36.

    Singer (2003).

  37. 37.

    Rossiter (1982), pp. 40–41.

  38. 38.

    Singer (2003), pp. 86–97.

  39. 39.

    Fenster and Parshall (1994).

  40. 40.

    See Rowe (1992), Chap. 5.7; and Parshall and Rowe (1994), pp. 239–253. For an interpretation of the roles played by the wives of mathematicians, see also Jones (2009), p. 37.

  41. 41.

    Tobies (1991/1992).

  42. 42.

    [UBG] Cod. MS F. Klein 9, pp. 310–311 (Gentry’s letters to Klein, dated July 21 and 31, 1891).

  43. 43.

    The original German reads as follows: “Das ist schlimmer als die Sozialdemokratie, die nur den Unterschied des Besitzes abschaffen will. Sie wollen den Unterschied der Geschlechter abschaffen” ([UBG] Cod. MS F. Klein, 22L, p. 7; also quoted in Siegmund-Schultze (1997), p. 31; and in English in Rowe (1992)).

  44. 44.

    See Costas (2002); and Tobies (1997).

  45. 45.

    See Tobies (1991/1992), p. 151.

  46. 46.

    Oskar Bolza (1857–1942), who had earned his doctorate in Göttingen in 1886, also became a professor at the University of Chicago. On the developments in the United States, see especially Parshall and Rowe (1994).

  47. 47.

    Tobies (1991/1992), p. 154.

  48. 48.

    Boos-Jegher (1894), pp. 8, 16.

  49. 49.

    Grace Chisholm had studied at Girton College at the University of Cambridge, where women could not earn a doctoral degree. One of her professors of mathematics, Andrew Forsyth (1865–1942), recommended that she go to Felix Klein, with whom he was well acquainted (see Mühlhausen (1995), p. 197).

  50. 50.

    Ada Isabel Maddison (1869–1950) was a British woman who, like Scott and Chisholm, studied with Arthur Cayley in Cambridge. After graduating from Girton College in 1892, she attended Bryn Mawr College in the United States, where she won a fellowship for studying abroad. After returning to Bryn Mawr, Maddison completed her Ph.D. and translated Klein’s article “The Arithmetizing of Mathematics,” Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 2 (1896), pp. 241–249.

  51. 51.

    [UBG] Cod. Ms. Klein I C2, pp. 95–96.

  52. 52.

    Quoted from Tobies (1991/1992), p. 157.

  53. 53.

    Quoted from Kirchhoff (1897), p. 241.

  54. 54.

    [UBG] Cod. MS F. Klein VII E.

  55. 55.

    See Vogt (1999).

  56. 56.

    See Abele et al. (2004); and Tobies (2011a).

  57. 57.

    Iris Runge took part during the winter semester 1914–15 while she was already a secondary school teacher in Göttingen. This is before she would move to Bremen and elsewhere, and before she would become an industrial mathematician in 1923 (see Tobies (2011b)).

  58. 58.

    A. Stern passed her teaching examination in 1918 (mathematics, physics, chemistry) and completed her doctorate under the supervision of Richard Courant in 1925. Here thesis is entitled “Bemerkungen über asymptodisches Verhalten von Eigenwerten und Eigenfunktionen” ([UAG] Math.-nat. Fak. Prom. S, Vol. I 1922–25, Nr. 35).

  59. 59.

    Helene Stähelin completed her doctoral thesis—“Die charakteristischen Zahlen analytischer Kurven auf dem Kegel zweiter Ordnung und ihrer Studyschen Bildkurven”—at the university of Basel in 1924.

  60. 60.

    See [UBG] Cod. MS F. Klein 114 (a collection of Klein’s nominations of potential members of academies and scientific societies).

  61. 61.

    See Herrmann (2019).

  62. 62.

    See especially Tollmien (1990).

  63. 63.

    The numbers are inexact because not all of the names could be identified.

  64. 64.

    The evaluations of her dissertation are printed in Tobies (1999).

  65. 65.

    See Tobies (2004c).

  66. 66.

    Lykknes et al. (2012).

  67. 67.

    On developments in the Czech Republic, see Martina Bečvářová’s Chap. I.3.

  68. 68.

    See Binder (1998).

  69. 69.

    [UBG] Cod. MS. F. Klein 10, p. 905. MacKinnon gave a presentation, entitled “Die Smith’-sche Curve,” in Klein’s seminar during the summer semester of 1896.

  70. 70.

    See http://www.tollmien.com/pdf/chisholm.pdf.

  71. 71.

    See also Rowe (1992), p. 492.

  72. 72.

    Klein (1921), pp. 559–560, 565, 584–585. See also Rowe (2019).

  73. 73.

    See Tobies (2017); and Lorey (1909).

  74. 74.

    See Tobies (1989).

  75. 75.

    This law applied to women in all official positions; see Deutscher Juristinnenbund (1984), pp. 76–77.

  76. 76.

    See Tobies and Vogt (2014), and Tobies (2012b).

  77. 77.

    The letter was published for the first time in Tobies (1991/1992), p. 172.

  78. 78.

    On George Pick, see Martina Bečvářová’s Chap. I.3. Regarding Winkelmann, see Tobies and Vogt (2014), p. 195; and Bischof (2014).

  79. 79.

    See Tobies (2006).

Bibliography

Archival Resources

  • [BBF] Bibliothek für bildungsgeschichtliche Forschung, Berlin, Personal Records of Prussian teachers.

    Google Scholar 

  • [UAG] Universitätsarchiv Göttingen, Philos. Fak., Promotionsakten.

    Google Scholar 

  • [UBG] Handschriftenabteilung der Niedersächsischen Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Göttingen, Cod. MS. Felix Klein.

    Google Scholar 

  • Protokolle. Protocols of Felix Klein’s mathematics seminars. Library of the Mathematical Institute of the University of Göttingen. Online: http://www.uni-math.gwdg.de/aufzeichnungen/klein-scans/klein/.

Secondary Literature

  • Abele, A., Neunzert, H., & Tobies, R. (2004). Traumjob Mathematik: Berufswege von Frauen und Männern in der Mathematik. Basel: Birkhäuser.

    Google Scholar 

  • Binder, C. (1998). Von Olmütz nach Pasadena: Die Zahlentheoretikerin Olga Taussky-Todd. In: R. Tobies (Ed.), “Aller Männerkultur zum Trotz”: Frauen in Mathematik, Naturwissenschaften und Technik. Frankfurt am Main: Campus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Birn, M. (2015). Die Anfänge des Frauenstudiums in Deutschland: Das Streben nach Gleichberechtigung von 1869–1918, dargestellt anhand politischer, statistischer und biographischer Zeugnisse. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bischof, T. (2014). Angewandte Mathematik und Frauenstudium in Thüringen: Eingebettet in die mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Unterrichtsreform seit 1900 am Beispiel Dorothea Starke. Jena: Geramond.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boos-Jegher, E. (Ed.). (1894). Die Thätigkeit der Frau in Amerika. Weltausstellung in Chicago 1893: Berichte der schweizerischen Delegierten. Bern: Michel & Büchler.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borisovna, V. O. (2003). Духовное пространство Университета: Высшие женские (Бестужевские) курсы (1878–1918 гг.): Исследования и материалы. (Монография). St. Petersburg.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carbone, L., & Talamo, M. (2010). Gi albori della presanza femminile nello studio della matematica presso l’Università di Napoli nell’Italia unificata. Rendiconto dell’ Accademia delle Scienze Fisiche e Matematiche Napoli, 77, 15–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coen, S. (Ed.). (2012). Mathematicians in Bologna 1861–1960. Basel: Birkhäuser.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costas, I. (2002). Women in science in Germany. Science in Context, 15, 557–576.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curbera, G. P. (2009). Mathematicians of the World, Unite! The International Congress of Mathematicians—A Human Endeavor. Wellesley, MA: CRC Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deutscher Juristinnenbund. (1984). Juristinnen in Deutschland: Eine Dokumentation (1900–1984). Munich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eminger, S. U. (2015). Carl Friedrich Geiser and Ferdinand Rudio: The Men Behind the First International Congress of Mathematicians. Doctoral thesis, University of St Andrews (Scotland).

    Google Scholar 

  • Fenster, D. D., & Hunger Parshall, K. (1994). Women in the American Mathematical Research Community. In: E. Knobloch & D. E. Rowe (Eds.). The history of modern mathematics (Vol. 3, pp. 229–261). Boston: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ganzha, E. I., Loginov, V. M., & Tsarev, S. P. (2008). Exact solutions of hyperbolic systems of kinetic equations: Application to Verhulst model with random perturbation. Mathematics in Computer Science, 1(3), 459–472.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geiringer, H. (1922). Die Gedankenwelt der Mathematik. Berlin: Verlag der Arbeitsgemeinschaft.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green, J., & LaDuke, J. (2009). Pioneering women in american mathematics: The pre-1940 PhD’s. History of Mathematics 34. Providence: American Mathematical Society and London Mathematical Society.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grinstein, L. S., & Campbell, P. J. (Eds.). (1987). Women of mathematics: A bio-bibliographical sourcebook. Westport: Greenwood Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Härdle, W. K., & Vogt, A. B. (2015). Ladislaus von Bortkiewicz: Statistician, Economist and a European Intellectual. International Statistical Review, 83, 17–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hag, K., & Lindquist, P. (1997). Elizabeth Stephansen: A pioneer. Det Kongelige Norske Videnskabers Selskab: Skrifter, 2, 1–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herrmann, K. (Ed.). (2019). Grete Henry-Hermann: Philosophie - Mathematik - Quantenmechanik. Texte zur Naturphilosophie und Erkenntnistheorie, mathematisch-physikalische Beiträge sowie ausgewählte Korrespondenz aus den Jahren 1925 bis 1982. Wiesbaden: Springer VS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, C. G. (2009). Femininity, mathematics and science, 1880–1914. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirchhoff, A. (Ed.). (1897). Die akademische Frau: Gutachten hervorragender Universitätsprofessoren, Frauenlehrer und Schriftsteller über die Befähigung der Frau zum wissenschaftlichen Studium und Berufe. Berlin: Steinitz.

    Google Scholar 

  • König, Y.-E., Prauss, C., & Tobies, R. (2014). Margarete Kahn, Klara Löbenstein: Mathematicians – Assistant Headmasters – Friends. Trans. Selker, Jeanne M. L. Jewish Miniatures 108. Berlin: Hentrich & Hentrich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lorey, W. (1909). Die mathematischen Wissenschaften und die Frauen. Bemerkungen zur Reform der höheren Mädchenschule. Frauenbildung. Zeitschrift für die gesamten Interessen des weiblichen Unterrichtswesens, 8, 161–178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lykknes, A., Opitz, D. L., & van Tiggelen, B. (Eds.). (2012). For better or for worse? Collaborative couples in the sciences. Basel: Birkhäuser.

    Google Scholar 

  • Makeev, N. N. (2011). Lubobj Nikolaevna Zapolskaya (on the 140th Birthday Anniversary [Russian]. Vestnik permskovo universiteta 3, 7, 82–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mühlhausen, E. (1995). Grace Emily Chisholm Young (1868–1944). In: T. Weber-Reich (Ed.), Des “Kennenlernens werth”: Bedeutende Frauen Göttingens (pp. 195–211). Göttingen: Wallstein.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parshall, K. H. (2015). Training Women in mathematical research: The first fifty years of Bryn Mawr College (1885–1935). Mathematical Intelligencer, 37, 71–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parshall, K. H., & Rowe, D. E. (1994). The Emergence of the American Mathematical Research Community 1876 –1900: J. J. Sylvetser, Felix Klein, and E. H. Moore. History of Mathematics 8. American Mathematical Society/London Mathematical Society.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richter, T. (2015). Analyse der Briefe des französischen Mathematikers Gaston Darboux (1842–1917) an den deutschen Mathematiker Felix Klein (1849–1925). Wissenschaftliche Hausarbeit zur Ersten Staatsprüfung für das Lehramt an Gymnasien im Fach Mathematik. Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rossiter, M. W. (1982). Women scientists in America. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowe, D. E. (1992). Felix Klein, David Hilbert, and the Goettingen Mathematical Tradition (2 vols). Doctoral dissertation, City University of New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowe, D. E. (2019). On Emmy Noether’s role in the relativity revolution. The Mathematical Intelligencer, 41(2), 65–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Senechal, M. (2013). I died for beauty: Dorothy Wrinch and the cultures of science. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siegmund-Schultze, R. (1993). Hilda Geiringer-von Mises, Charlier series, ideology, and the human side of the emancipation of applied mathematics at the University of Berlin During the 1920s. Historia Mathematica, 20, 364–381.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siegmund-Schultze, R. (1997). Felix Kleins Beziehungen zu den Vereinigten Staaten, die Anfänge deutscher Wisenschaftspolitik und die Reform um 1900. Sudhoffs Archiv, 81, 21–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siegmund-Schultze, R. (2009). Mathematicians Fleeing from Nazi Germany. Princeton: Princeton University-Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singer, S. L. (2003). Adventures abroad: North American women at german-speaking universities, 1868–1915. Contributions in Women’s Studies 201. Westport: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobies, R. (1989). Felix Klein als Mitglied des preußischen ‘Herrenhauses’: Wissenschaftlicher Mathematikunterricht für alle Schüler – auch für Mädchen und Frauen. Der Mathematikunterricht, 35, 4–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobies, R. (1991/1992). Zum Beginn des mathematischen Frauenstudiums in Preußen. NTM–Schriftenreihe für Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften, Technik und Medizin, 28, 151–172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobies, R. (1997). Einflussfaktoren auf die Karrieren von Frauen in Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften. In: R. Tobies (Ed.), “Aller Männerkultur zum Trotz”: Frauen in Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften. Frankfurt am Main: Campus. 17–67. Second extended edition (2008): “Aller Männerkultur zum Trotz”: Frauen in Mathematik, Naturwissenschaften und Technik (pp. 21–80).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobies, R. (1999). Felix Klein und David Hilbert als Förderer von Frauen in der Mathematik. Acta Historiae Rerum Naturalium necnon Technicarum/Prague Studies in the History of Science and Technology, 3, 69–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobies, R. (2001a). Femmes et mathématiques dans le monde occidental, un panorama historiographique. Gazette des mathématiciens, 90, 26–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobies, R. (2001b). Baden als Wegbereiter: Marie Gernet (1865–1924) erste Doktorandin in Mathematik und Lehrerin am ersten Mädchengymnasium. In: M. Toepell (Ed.), Mathematik im Wandel (pp. 228–241). Hildesheim: Franzbecker.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobies, R. (2003). Briefe Emmy Noethers an P. S. Alexandroff. Internationale Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Ethik der Naturwissenschaften, Technik und Medizin N. S., 11, 100–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobies, R. (2004a). Berufswege im Lehramt in der ersten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts. In: A. Abele, H. Neunzert, & R. Tobies (Eds.), Traumjob Mathematik (pp. 18–37). Basel: Birkhäuser.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobies, R. (2004b). Berufswege promovierter Mathematikerinnen und Mathematiker in der ersten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts. In: A. Abele, H. Neunzert, & R. Tobies (Eds.). Traumjob Mathematik (pp. 89–120). Basel: Birkhäuser.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobies, R. (2004c). Mathematikerinnen und Mathematiker um 1900 in Deutschland und international. In: A Abele, H. Neunzert, & R. Tobies (Eds.), Traumjob Mathematik (pp. 133–146). Basel: Birkhäuser.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobies, R. (2006). Biographisches Lexikon in Mathematik promovierter Personen. Algorismus 58. Augsburg: Dr. Erwin Rauner.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobies, R. (2008). Elisabeth Staiger: Oberstudiendirektorin in Hildesheim. Hildesheimer Jahrbuch für Stadt und Stift Hildesheim, 80, 51–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobies, R. (2011a). Career paths in mathematics: A comparison between women and men. In: K. François, et al. (Eds.), Foundations of the formal sciences VII: Bringing together philosophy and sociology of science (pp. 229–242). Studies in Logic 32. Milton Keynes: Lightning Source.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobies, R. (2011b). Vertrieben aus Positionen seit 1933: Habilitierte und promovierte Mathematikerinnen und Physikerinnen – Trends, Ursachen, Merkmale. In: I. Hansen-Schaberg & H. Häntzschel (Eds.), Alma Maters Töchter im Exil: Zur Vertreibung von Wissenschaftlerinnen und Akademikerinnen in der NS-Zeit (pp. 114–131). Frauen und Exil 4. Munich: Richard Boorberg.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobies, R. (2012a). German graduates in mathematics in the first half of the 20th century: Biographies and prosopography. In: L. Rollet & P. Nabonnand (Eds.), Les uns et les autres… Biographies et prosopographies en histoire des sciences (pp. 387–407). Collection Histoire des institutions scientifiques. Nancy: Presses Universitaires.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobies, R. (2012b). Iris Runge: A life at the crossroads of mathematics, science, and industry (Trans. Pakis, V. A.) Science Networks: Historical Studies 43. Basel: Birkhäuser.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobies, R. (2016). Felix Klein und französische Mathematiker. In: T. Krohn & S. Schöneburg (Eds.) Mathematik von einst für jetzt (pp. 103–132). Hildesheim: Franzbecker.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobies, R. (2017). Thekla Freytag: Die Mädchen werden beweisen, dass auch sie exakt und logisch denken können… In: G. Wolfschmidt (Ed.), Scriba Memorial Meeting: History of Mathematics (pp. 330–379). Nuncius Hamburgensis: Beiträge zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften 36. Hamburg: Tredition.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobies, R. (2019). Felix Klein. Visionen für Mathematik, Anwendungen und Unterricht. Heidelberg: SpringerSpektrum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobies, R., & Rowe, D. E. (1990). Korrespondenz Felix Klein – Adolph Mayer: Auswahl aus den Jahren 1871 bis 1907. Teubner-Archiv zur Mathematik 14. Leipzig: B. G. Teubner.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobies, R., & Vogt, A. B., with the assistance of Pakis, V. A. (Eds.). (2014). Women in industrial research. Wissenschaftskultur um 1900 8. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner.

    Google Scholar 

  • Toepell, M. (Ed.). (1991). Mitgliedergesamtverzeichnis der Deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung 1890–1990. Munich: Institut für Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tollmien, C. (1990). ‘Sind wir doch der Meinung, daß ein weiblicher Kopf nur ganz ausnahmsweise in der Mathematik schöpferisch tätig sein kann …’: Eine Biographie der Mathematikerin Emmy Noether (1882–1935) und zugleich ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Habilitation von Frauen an der Universität Göttingen. Göttinger Jahrbuch, 38, 153–219.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tollmien, C. (1997). Zwei erste Promotionen: Die Mathematikerin Sofja Kowalewskaja und die Chemikerin Julia Lermontowa. In: R. Tobies (Ed.), “Aller Männerkultur zum Trotz”: Frauen in Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften (pp. 83–129). Frankfurt am Main: Campus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vogt, A. (1999). Elsa Neumann: Berlins erstes Fräulein Doktor. Berlin: Verlag für Wissenschafts- und Regionalgeschichte Dr. Michael Engel.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Ernst-Haeckel-Haus, Universität Jena, Kahlaische Str. 1, 07745, Jena, Germany

    Renate Tobies

Authors
  1. Renate Tobies
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Renate Tobies .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Mainu, Hessen, Germany

    Eva Kaufholz-Soldat

  2. Department of Mathematics and Informatics, University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany

    Nicola M.R. Oswald

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Tobies, R. (2020). Internationality: Women in Felix Klein’s Courses at the University of Göttingen (1893–1920). In: Kaufholz-Soldat, E., Oswald, N. (eds) Against All Odds. Women in the History of Philosophy and Sciences, vol 6. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47610-6_1

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation