Abstract
Fascism has always challenged, transcended, and redefined bounded entities. Its histories were also forged in and through permanent movement—geographic and ideological alike. Mobility—a fascinating kaleidoscope of complex flows, diffusion, translation, and reflexive adaptations—remains a supremely promising framework for the study of fascism, fitting its conceptual syncretism and protean nature. If we accept that interwar fascism was a phenomenon with international reach driven, then our models of interpretations must accommodate these local interpretations and adaptations as integral parts of the history of fascism. In this essay, I focus on the concept of ‘para-fascism’ that Griffin provocatively coined in an attempt to re-establish a conceptual dialogue between fascism and its supposed conceptual peripheries. With ‘para-fascism’, Griffin did more than any other scholar of fascism to bring into the fold of comparative fascism studies a range of radical movements and especially authoritarian regimes in the 1920s/1930s that were heavily influenced by the emerging political paradigm of ‘fascism’ but lacked a clear revolutionary orientation. I argue that these not-quite-fascists did arguably more to facilitate the appeal and political diffusion of ‘fascism’ as the supposedly pure regime examples of Fascist Italy and National Socialist Germany.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Bibliography
Albanese, Giulia. 2016. Dittature Mediterranee. Bari and Rome: Laterza, 256.
Alcalde, Ángel. 2017. War Veterans and Fascism in Interwar Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bastow, Steve, and James Martin. 2003. Third Way Discourse: European Ideologies in the Twentieth Century. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Bastow, Steve, James Martin, and Dick Pels. 2002. Third Ways in Political Ideology. Journal of Political Ideologies 7, no. 3: 269–80.
Bauerkämper, Arnd, and Grzegorz Rossoliński-Liebe, eds. 2017. Fascism Without Borders: Transnational Connections and Cooperation Between Movements and Regimes in Europe From 1918 to 1945. New York and London: Berghahn.
Bellamy, Richard. 1986. Liberalism and Historicism: Benedetto Croce and the Political Role of Idealism in Modern Italy, 1890–1952. In The Promise of History: Essays in Political Philosophy, ed. Athanasios, Moulakis, 69–119. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter.
Ben-Ghiat, Ruth. 1996. Italian Fascism and the Aesthetics of the ‘Third Way’. Journal of Contemporary History 31: 293–316.
Berman, Sheri. 2006. The Primacy of Politics: Social Democracy and the Making of Europe’s Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Blinkhorn, Martin, ed. 1990. Fascists and Conservatives: The Radical Right and the Establishment in Twentieth-Century Europe. London: Unwin Hyman.
Blinkhorn, Martin. 2014. Fascism and the Right in Europe 1919–1945. London and New York: Routledge.
Borejsza, Jerzy W., Klaus Ziemer, and Magdalena Hułas. 2006. Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes in Europe. Oxford: Berghahn Books.
Cresswell, Tim. 2001. Mobilities—An Introduction. New Formations 439–10.
De Grand, Alexander J. 1978. The Italian Nationalist Association and the Rise of Fascism in Italy. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 238.
Dobry, Michel. 1989. Février 1934 et la découverte de ‘l’allergie’ de la société française à la ‘révolution fasciste’. Revue Française de Sociologie 30: 511–33.
Dobry, Michel. 2011. Desperately Seeking ‘Generic Fascism’: Some Discordant Thoughts on the Academic Recycling of Indigenous Categories. In Rethinking the Nature of Fascism, António Costa Pinto, ed, 53–84. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Eatwell, Roger. 1995. Fascism: A History. London: Chatto & Windus.
Eatwell, Roger. 1996. On Defining the ‘Fascist Minimum’: The Centrality of Ideology. Journal of Political Ideologies 1: 303–19.
Eatwell, Roger. 2003. The Nature of ‘Generic Fascism’: The ‘Fascist Minimum’ and the ‘Fascist Matrix’. In Rechsextreme Ideologien Im 20 Und 21 Jahhundert, Backes, Uwe, ed, 93–137. Cologne: Bohlau Verlag.
Freeden, Michael. 2013. The Morphological Analysis of Ideology. In The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies, ed. Freeden, Michael and Marc Stears, 115–37. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Galimi, Valeria, and Annarita Gori, eds. 2020. Intellectuals in the Latin Space During the Era of Fascism. London and New York: Routledge.
Gentile, Emilio. 2005. The Origins of Fascist Ideology, 1918–1925. New York: Enigma.
Gentile, Emilio. 2014. La Grande Italia: Il Mito Della Nazione Nel XX Secolo. Rome and Bari: Laterza.
Griffin, Roger. 1993. The Nature of Fascism. London and New York: Routledge,
Griffin, Roger. 2000. Revolution From the Right: Fascism. In Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition in the West, 1560–1991, ed. Parker, David, 185–201. London and New York: Routledge.
Griffin, Roger. 2002. The Primacy of Culture: The Current Growth (or Manufacture) of Consensus Within Fascist Studies. Journal of Contemporary History 37: 21–43.
Griffin, Roger. 2004. Introduction: God’s Counterfeiters? Investigating the Triad of Fascism, Totalitarianism and (Political) Religion. Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 5: 291–325.
Griffin, Roger. 2007. Modernism and Fascism: The Sense of a Beginning Under Mussolini and Hitler. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Griffin, Roger. 2008. Modernity, Modernism, and Fascism. A ‘Mazeway Resynthesis’. Modernism/Modernity 15: 9–24.
Griffin, Roger. 2016. Fascism’s Modernist Revolution: A New Paradigm for the Study of Right-Wing Dictatorships. Fascism 5, No. 2: 105–29.
Griffin, Roger, Werner Loh, and Andreas Umland, eds. 2006. Fascism, Past and Present, West and East. An International Debate on Concepts and Cases in the Comparative Study of the Extreme Right. Stuttgart: Ibidem.
Irvine, William D. 1991. Fascism in France and the Strange Case of the Croix de Feu. Journal of Modern History 63: 271–295.
Kallis, A.A. 2000. The ‘Regime-Model’ of Fascism: A Typology. European History Quarterly 30: 77–104.
Kallis, Aristotle. 2003. ‘Fascism’, ‘Para-Fascism’ and ‘Fascistization’: On the Similarities of Three Conceptual Categories. European History Quarterly 33: 219–49.
Kallis, Aristotle. 2017. Ideas in Flux”: The “4th of August” Dictatorship in Greece as a Political “Departure” in Search of “Destination. In Corporatism and Fascism: The Corporatist Wave in Europe, ed. Pinto, António Costa, 272–91. London and New York: Routledge.
Kranert, Michael. 2019. Discourse and Political Culture. Amsterdam and Philadephia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Linz, Juan José. 2000. Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes. Boulder, CO and London: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Mann, Michael. 2004. Fascists. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Marsella, Mauro. 2004. Enrico Corradini’s Italian Nationalism: The ‘Right Wing’ of the Fascist Synthesis, Journal of Political Ideologies 9, 2: 203–24.
Morodo, Raul. 1985. Los orígenes ideológicos del Franquismo: Acción Española. Madrid: Alianza.
Mosse, George L. 1961. The Culture of Western Europe. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally and Co.
Mosse, George L. 1966. Introduction: The Genesis of Fascism. Journal of Contemporary History 1, No. 1: 14–26.
Mosse, George L. 1979. Toward a General Theory of Fascism. In International Fascism: New Thoughts and New Approaches, ed. Mosse, George L., 1–45. London: Sage.
Nolte, Ernst. 1965. Three Faces of Fascism: Action Francaise, Italian Fascism, National Socialism. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Passmore, Kevin. 2014. The Essence of Fascism. In Fascism, Past and Present, West and East: An International Debate on Concepts and Cases in the Comparative Study of the Extreme Right, ed. Griffin, Roger, Werner Loh, and Andreas Umland, 168–74. Stuttgart: Ibidem, 2014.
Passmore, Kevin. 2017. Fascism as a Social Movement in a Transnational Context. In The History of Social Movements in Global Perspective, ed. Berger, Stefan and Holger Nehring, 579–617. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Paxton, Robert O. 1998. The Five Stages of Fascism. Journal of Modern History 70, No. 1: 1–23.
Paxton, Robert O. 2004. The Anatomy of Fascism. London: Penguin,
Payne, Stanley G. 1995. A History of Fascism, 1914–1945. London: UCL Press,
Pinto, António Costa, and Aristotle Kallis, eds. 2014. Rethinking Fascism and Dictatorship in Europe Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Quiroga, Alejandro. 2007. Making Spaniards: Primo De Rivera and the Nationalization of the Masses, 1923–30. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Quiroga, Alejandro, and Miguel Angel Del Arco, eds. 2012. Right-Wing Spain in the Civil War Era. London and New York: Continuum.
Riley, Dylan. 2019. The Civic Foundations of Fascism in Europe. London and New York: Verso, 320.
Roberts, David D. 1979. The Syndicalist Tradition and Italian Fascism. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 410.
Roberts, David D. 2000. How Not to Think About Fascism and Ideology, Intellectual Antecedents and Historical Meaning. Journal of Contemporary History 35, No. 2: 185–211.
Roberts, David D. 2016. Fascist Interactions: Proposals for a New Approach to Fascism and Its Era, 1919–1945. New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books.
Sarti, Rolando. 1990. Italian Fascism: Radical Politics and Conservative Goals. In Fascists and Conservatives: The Radical Right and the Establishment in Twentieth-Century Europe, ed. Blinkhorn, Martin, 14–49. London: Unwin Hyman.
Saz Campos, Ismael. 2004. Fascism, Fascistization and Developmentalism in Franco’s Dictatorship. Social History 29, No. 3: 342–57.
Schnapp, Jeffrey T. 1992. Epic Demonstrations: Fascist Modernity and the 1932 Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution. In Fascism, Aesthetics, and Culture, ed. Golsan, Richard J., 1–37. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England.
Schnapp, Jeffrey T. 2007. Mostre. In Kunst Und Propaganda Im Streit Der Nationen 1930–1945, ed. Czech, Hans-Jörg and Nikola Doll, 78–85. Dresden: Sandstein.
Sencourt, Robert. 1940. Spain’s Ordeal. London and New York: Longman, Green and Co.
Simone, Giulia. 2012. Il Guardasigilli Del Regime. L’Itinerario Politico E Culturale Di Alfredo Rocco. Milan: FrancoAngeli.
Soucy, Robert J. 1991. French Fascism and the Croix De Feu: A Dissenting Interpretation. Journal of Contemporary History 26: 159–88.
Souvlis, George. 2019. Towards an Anatomy of Metaxas’s Fascist Experiment: Organic Intellectuals, Antiparliamentarian Discourse and Authoritarian State Building. PhD thesis, European University Institute, Florence.
Sternhell, Zeev. 1982. Fascist Ideology. In Fascism: A Reader’s Guide, ed. Laqueur, Walter, 325–406. London: Penguin.
Sternhell, Zeev. 1994. The Birth of Fascist Ideology: From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Sternhell, Zeev. 1996. Neither Right Nor Left: Fascist Ideology in France. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Stocker, Paul. 2016. Importing Fascism: Reappraising the British Fascisti, 1923–1926. Contemporary British History 30, No. 3: 326–48.
Susmel, Edoardo and Susmel Duilio, ed. 1951–61. Opera Omnia di Benito Mussolini. Florence: La Fenice.
Vincent, Mary. 2009. Spain. In The Oxford Handbook of Fascism, ed. Bosworth, Richard J. B., 362–79. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Weyland, Kurt. 2010. The Diffusion of Regime Contention in European Democratization, 1830–1940. Comparative Political Studies 43, Nos. 8–9: 1148–76.
Weyland, Kurt. 2016. Patterns of Diffusion: Comparing Democratic and Autocratic Waves. Global Policy 7, No. 4: 557–62.
Weyland, Kurt. 2017. Autocratic Diffusion and Cooperation: The Impact of Interests Vs. Ideology. Democratization 24, No. 7: 1235–52.
Weyland, Kurt. 2017. Fascism’s Missionary Ideology and the Autocratic Wave of the Interwar Years. Democratization 24, No. 7: 1253–70.
Winock, Michel. 2006. Retour sur le fascisme français. La Rocque et les Croix-de-Feu. Vingtième Siècle. Revue d’histoire 90: 3–27.
Woodley, Daniel. 2009. Fascism and Political Theory. London and New York: Routledge, 288.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Kallis, A. (2020). Working Across Bounded Entities: Fascism, ‘Para-Fascism’, and Ideational Mobilities in Interwar Europe. In: Iordachi, C., Kallis, A. (eds) Beyond the Fascist Century. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46831-6_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46831-6_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-46830-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-46831-6
eBook Packages: HistoryHistory (R0)