Abstract
Neoliberalism is in the first instance a theory of political economic practices that proposes that human well-being can be best advanced by liberating individual entrepreneurial freedoms and skills within an institutional framework characterized by strong private property rights, free markets, and free trade (Harvey 2005).
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Notes
- 1.
Historically, TINA has been used by the nineteenth-century classical liberal thinker Herbert Spencer and became a slogan of Margaret Thatcher in the 1980s.
- 2.
IPBES is an independent intergovernmental body that has been established by EU member states in 2012. For more information see https://www.ipbes.net/about.
- 3.
- 4.
- 5.
- 6.
- 7.
- 8.
See also David Harvey’s recent interview on the topic: https://mronline.org/2019/02/16/the-neoliberal-project-is-alive-but-has-lost-its-legitimacy-david-harvey/.
- 9.
- 10.
For more information see: https://rebellion.earth/.
- 11.
See https://ejatlas.org/.
- 12.
- 13.
See also the recent interview of David Harvey in Monthly Review: https://mronline.org/2019/02/16/the-neoliberal-project-is-alive-but-has-lost-its-legitimacy-david-harvey/.
- 14.
Cited in Layzer (2012).
- 15.
As Layzer (2012) points out, Lou Cannon, the biographer of Reagan, argued that although Reagan was an outdoorsman and nature lover, he was contemptuous of environmentalists. Indeed, the Republican Party platform was clearly hostile toward both government and environmental regulation (Bonneuil 2015).
- 16.
As we read in the relevant report “the number of conservation banks that are established will be regulated by the free market and willingness of landowners to participate, not by the wildlife agencies” (cited in Mead 2008, p. 11).
- 17.
- 18.
BBOP’s website is no longer active as explained in the last paragraph of this section.
- 19.
Forest Trends’ Ecosystem Marketplace publishes breaking news, newsletters, original feature articles and major reports on finance for conservation, such as carbon offsets, forest finance, biodiversity offsets and compensation, watershed investments, and private investment in conservation. For more information see their website: https://www.forest-trends.org/ecosystem-marketplace/about-ecosystem-marketplace/.
- 20.
- 21.
- 22.
For more information see: https://www.forest-trends.org/who-we-are/mission-and-history/.
- 23.
- 24.
The NNL initiative of the EU had been open to consultation on June 2014 and its future state is at the moment uncertain (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/biodiversity/nnl/index_en.htm).
- 25.
The central position of the NNL objective as an explicit aim of an offset program draws a distinction between offsets and compensation (two terms that in some jurisdictions are considered as synonyms) since the latter does not necessarily involves this aim (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/biodiversity/nnl/pdf/NNL_Glossary.pdf).
- 26.
The term habitat banking can refer to both species and habitats – therefore it can be used as analogous to conservation banking and biodiversity banking. In the USA mitigation banking refers to wetland restoration and conservation banking is species-specific but, in most jurisdictions, bio/conservation/habitat/mitigation banking are synonyms (Eftec and IEEP 2010). Moreover, in the context of the NNL working group of the European Union conservation credits may include habitats, species and/or ecosystem services (ibid.).
- 27.
- 28.
Action 7 under target 2 of the EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020 seeks to “ensure no net loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services”. Additionally, the European Commission established a Working Group on No Net Loss of Ecosystems and their Services (NNL WG) in the context of the Common Implementation Framework of the Biodiversity Strategy.
- 29.
It should be noted that consultants have so far played a leading role in the production of biodiversity offsetting reports and independent research on offsetting, especially from a critical social sciences point of view, remains very limited. It is indicative that the most widely cited reports on the state of offsetting schemes and conservation banks across the globe have been prepared by consultants and multinational organizations that bring together actors from various industries, non-governmental organizations, companies, governments, and financial institutions.
- 30.
Bennett et al. (2017a) point out that this figure underestimates the actual impact of compensatory mitigation in Europe, since less than 60% of the identified projects reported data about the land area covered by their activities.
- 31.
There are three major EU-level regulatory frameworks that include compensatory mitigation elements: the Birds and Habitats Directives, the Environmental Liability Directive, and Environmental Impact Assessment frameworks.
- 32.
Available at: https://portals.iucn.org/offsetpolicy/policy-reviews.
- 33.
For more information see: https://portals.iucn.org/offsetpolicy/.
- 34.
Available at: https://www.forest-trends.org/about-our-project-data.
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Apostolopoulou, E. (2020). Neoliberal Natures and Biodiversity Offsetting. In: Nature Swapped and Nature Lost. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46788-3_2
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