Abstract
The movement of people is based on a mixture of feelings: while one desires to emigrate and belong to another society, others might have disinterest in receiving and embracing an immigrant’s choice. According to Dolinger and Tiburcio (2016, p. 165), the European societies, even in their last modern centuries, have not developed their ways of seeing the foreigner (as they did not consider foreigners as part of their society), as people ready to contribute to their economic development. In this sense, legal differences between nationals and foreigners in Europe are still identifiable. Both authors believe that, in the American continent, where new societies were built up through the composition of a mixed population, there has been a different approach towards foreigners.
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Notes
- 1.
Since the mid-1990s, great part of Latin America has engaged in the approval of new migration laws, such as: Paraguay (Law No 978/1996 and Decree 4,483/2015); Argentina (Law No. 25,871/2004); Venezuela (Ley de Extranjería y Migración, 2004); Uruguay (Law No. 18,250/2008); Colombia (Law No. 1,465/2011); Mexico (Ley de Migración, 2011); Bolivia (Law No. 370/2013); Equador (Ley Orgánica de Movilidad Humana, 2017), and Peru (Decreto Legislativo 1,350/2017), as provided by Nunes (2017, pp. 14–15).
- 2.
This, to some extent, holds true to Europe as well, as equality before the law is a human right and not a right limited to EU citizens, as set out in Articles 20 (equality before the law) and 21 (non-discrimination) of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (OJ C 326, 26.10.2012, pp. 391–407).
- 3.
The new Brazilian migration law is available via http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2015-2018/2017/Lei/L13445.htm.
- 4.
The Decree (Decreto n° 9.199/2017) was published on 21 Nov 2017 and is available via http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2015-2018/2017/decreto/D9199.htm.
- 5.
“Art. 5°: Todos são iguais perante a lei, sem distinção de qualquer natureza, garantindo-se aos brasileiros e aos estrangeiros residentes no País a inviolabilidade do direito à vida, à liberdade, à igualdade, à segurança e à propriedade, nos termos seguintes: […].” In English: “Article 5. All persons are equal before the law, without any distinction whatsoever, Brazilians and foreigners residing in the country being ensured of inviolability of the right to life, to liberty, to equality, to security and to property, on the following terms: (CA No. 45, 2004)”, translation derived from: Chamber of Deputies, Documentation and Information Center (2010, p. 15). The current constitution of the Federal Republic of Brazil dates from the October 5, 1988, after a 21-year dictatorship period. Since its existence, 105 constitutional amendments have already been carried out. The Constitution of Brazil is available via http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/constituicao/constituicao.htm.
- 6.
From the literal interpretation of Article 5 of the Brazilian Constitution, it could be understood that only the foreigners residing in Brazil have their fundamental rights guaranteed. However, legal scholars interprete the text of this article by including all immigrants, also the ones who do not live in Brazil. The way this article has been written has to do with the political rights, which are enumerated in Article 5, to which only Brazilians and foreigners living in Brazil may have access. For more details see: Dolinger and Tiburcio (2016, p. 179), Carvalho (2007, p. 587), and Lopes (2009, pp. 459–462).
- 7.
See, for example, decision from the Brazilian Supreme Federal Court: STF, HC 94016 MC/SP, rel. Min. Celso de Mello, j. 7/4/2008. Another interesting decision from the Federal Court of the State of São Paulo (TRF 4ª Região, AG 2005040132106/PR, j. 29/8/2006) has guaranteed that even illegal immigrants in the Brazilian territory should have access to fundamental rights. In this case, the judges decided that the so-called “illegal immigrant” should have entire access to publicly funded healthcare system in the country, which is offered free of charge.
- 8.
“Art. 95. O estrangeiro residente no Brasil goza de todos os direitos reconhecidos aos brasileiros, nos termos da Constituição e das leis.”
- 9.
The free translation of this article (p. 15), as well as of the whole text of the new Brazilian Migration Law and its vetoes mentioned throughout this book derive from: Vasconcelos et al. (2018).
- 10.
Such as the selected sections of Article 5 presented hereunder:
Article 5. All persons are equal before the law, without any distinction whatsoever, Brazilians and foreigners residing in the country being ensured of inviolability of the right to life, to liberty, to equality, to security and to property, on the following terms: (CA No. 45, 2004)
I – men and women have equal rights and duties under the terms of this Constitution;
II – no one shall be obliged to do or refrain from doing something except by virtue of law;
III – no one shall be submitted to torture or to inhuman or degrading treatment;
IV – the expression of thought is free, and anonymity is forbidden;
[…]
VI – freedom of conscience and of belief is inviolable, the free exercise of religious cults being ensured and, under the terms of the law, the protection of places of worship and their rites being guaranteed;
[…]
IX – the expression of intellectual, artistic, scientific, and communications activities is free, independently of censorship or license;
X – the privacy, private life, honour and image of persons are inviolable, and the right to compensation for property or moral damages resulting from their violation is ensured;
XI – the home is the inviolable refuge of the individual, and no one may enter therein without the consent of the dweller, except in the event of flagrante delicto or disaster, or to give help, or, during the day, by court order;
[…]
XIII – the practice of any work, trade or profession is free, observing the professional qualifications which the law shall establish;
XIV – access to information is ensured to everyone and the confidentiality of the source shall be safeguarded, whenever necessary to the professional activity;
XV – locomotion within the national territory is free in time of peace, and any person may, under the terms of the law, enter it, remain therein or leave it with his assets;
XVI – all persons may hold peaceful meetings, without weapons, in places open to the public, regardless of authorization provided that they do not frustrate another meeting previously called for the same place, subject only to prior notice to the competent authority;
[…]
XXII – the right of property is guaranteed;
[…]
XLI – the law shall punish any discrimination which may attempt against fundamental rights and liberties;
XLII – the practice of racism is a non-bailable crime, with no limitation, subject to the penalty of confinement, under the terms of the law;
XLIII – the practice of torture, the illicit traffic of narcotics and related drugs, as well as terrorism, and crimes defined as heinous crimes shall be considered by law as non-bailable and not subject to grace or amnesty, and their principals, agents, and those who omit themselves while being able to avoid such crimes shall be held liable;
[…]
LII – extradiction of a foreigner on the basis of political or ideological crime shall not be granted;
LIII – no one shall undergo legal proceeding or sentencing save by the competent authority;
LIV – no one shall be deprived of freedom or of his assets without the due process of law;
[…]
LXXIV – the State shall provide full and free-of-charge legal assistance to all who prove insufficiency of funds;
LXXV – the State shall compensate a convict for judicial error, as well as a person who remains imprisoned for a period longer than the one established by the sentence;
LXXVI – for all who are acknowledgedly poor, the following is free of charge, under the terms of the law:
a) civil birth certificate;
b) death certificate;
[…] Translation extracted from Chamber of Deputies. Documentation and Information Center (2010). Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil, pp. 15–20.
- 11.
See definition of visitor in the following lines.
- 12.
Not only to public health, but also to welfare state and public education, as proved by Castro and Vasconcelos (2017, pp. 125–126) after having conducted a research on the costs of migration for the Brazilian State. The authors concluded that, because Brazilian State does not register the costs it has with foreigners within public health system (once it actually does not know how many foreigners—visitors or not—have profited from Brazilian public health service), the country cannot develop an effective migration policy: “Um eine effektive Migrationspolitik betreiben zu können, müsste sich der brasilianische Staat aber im Klaren darüber sind, was genau die Kosten der Ein-und Auswanderungsbewegungen sind, die Brasilien betreffen. Er müsste wissen, wie viele Migranten durchschnittlich die Angebote der brasilianischen Versorgungsbetriebe in Anspruch nehmen und wie viel der Staat dadurch in Migranten investiert. Ohne sich über diese Kosten und die ökonomische Seite der Zuwanderung im Klaren zu sein, kann der brasilianische Staat die Migration nicht effektiv durch Gesetze lenken, da er sich über die Folgen von Gesetzesänderungen (insbesondere über ihre Kosten und Nutzen) nicht im Klaren ist. Die Migrationskosten und die ökonomische Seite der Zuwandererwelle spielen eine große Rolle bei der Organisation eines Staates und bei dem Entwurf neuer Gesetze”.
- 13.
In fact, there has been a discussion on the social assistance granted to foreigners within Brazilian territory, especially in relation to the assistance provided by article 203, V of the Brazilian Constitution. This provision guarantees a monthly benefit of one minimum wage to the handicapped and to the elderly who prove their incapability of providing for his/her own support or having it provided for by his/her families. The Brazilian Supreme Federal Court, Brazil’s constitutional court, understands that the social assistant enshrined in article 203, V, of the Constitution also applies to foreign residents in Brazil (Recurso Extraordinário No. 58,7970, published at DJe n. 88, from 28 April 2017, p. 45). For more details on the background of this decision, see: Nunes (2017, pp. 45–46).
- 14.
The new Brazilian Migration Law entered into force on November 21st 2017.
- 15.
In articles 1 to 3 of the former Brazilian Foreigners’ Statute the national security issue was a very important point for the application of the statute: “Art. 01. At times of peace, any alien shall have permission to enter this country and depart from it, provided all requirements of this Law have been complied with, and the national interests are safeguarded. […]
Art. 02. The application of this Law shall attend primarily to the national security, the institutional organization, the political, social-economic and cultural interests of Brazil, as well as the defense of the Brazilian workers.
Art. 03. The award of visas, and extension or transformation thereof shall at all times be conditional unto the national interests.” Translation derived from: Lima et al. (2009, pp. 283–307).
- 16.
Law 9474/1997 (Brazilian Refugee Law) provides the definition on refugees, which is neither an object of study of this work nor a point to be covered by Brazil’s new migration law.
- 17.
It is important to mention that this relationship between a state and its national refers to the vertical dimension of nationality. Lagarde also refers to the horizontal dimension of nationality, which puts the national of a state in the position of member of a community, i.e., as part of the population which constitutes the state and benefits from being a national of that state.
- 18.
The Brazilian Federal Senate, according to its technical opinion on the new Migration Law, considers the new legal definition of the term border residence of utmost importance. See: http://legis.senado.leg.br/sdleg-getter/documento?dm=5225079&disposition=inline.
- 19.
The history and origin of the brasiguaios are straight connected to economic, agricultural and military policies developed by both countries in the 1960s. The brasiguaios mixed the culture of both countries and established social, cultural and political bonds both in Brazil and in Paraguay. These people have either the Brazilian or the Paraguayan nationality (sons and daughters of Brazilians who represent the second generation of immigrants resident in Paraguay) and stablish strategic social networks in order to connect people along the border, see: Marques et al. (2013, p. 874). For more information on the brasiguayos see also: Lambert (2016), Albuquerque (2009), and Salim (1995).
- 20.
The acts of the civil life are legal acts which enable the exercise of the civil rights. Legal acts are events which derive from a person’s will. These events might or not have the intention of producing legal effects. In the case of border residents, one could cite as an example a person who lives on the border, and who crosses the border and enters Brazilian territory in order to sign a sales contract, to get married, to register the birth of her/his child or to open a bank account in the bank branch which is closest located to her/his domicile. For more information on civil facts and acts under Brazilian law, see: Venosa (2014, chapter 17), and Gagliano and Filho (2011, pp. 331–345).
- 21.
I.e. the city/town located immediately at the Brazilian border.
- 22.
It is important to mention that in the MERCOSUL level, there have also been discussions related to border residents: in its Working Subgroup No. 18 on border integration, the Common Market Group (GMC), represented by the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of each of the Member States, discusses issues related to health, education, work, migration, transport, infrastructure, urban and economic, indigenous people, cooperation, as well as other points which are relevant for the integration of border communities. In this sense, see: MERCOSUR/GMC/RES n° 59/2015, available via http://www.mercosur.int/innovaportal/file/7420/1/res_059-2015_es_integracionfronteriza.pdf.
- 23.
According to Dolinger and Tiburcio, the statelessness is the negative effect of the conflict of nationalities and it refers to the opposite of the dual nationality. For example, a child who is born in the territory of a country which has ius sanguinis as a criteria for acquiring nationality and who is son or daughter of a person whose nationality is defined according to the ius soli criteria. For more details on statelessness see: Dolinger and Tiburcio (2016, pp. 154–160).
- 24.
Even though the name of this Ministry was modified in 2016 by Law 13,341/16, renaming Ministry of Justice and Citizenship (Ministério da Justiça e Cidadania) to Ministry of Justice and Public Security (Ministério da Justiça e da Segurança Pública), as well as many other Ministries and State Departments, we prefer to refer to it in this work as Ministry of Justice.
- 25.
Promulgated and, therefore, integrated to Brazilian law by Decree No. 8.501, from 18th August 2015.
- 26.
For more information see: Tiburcio and Barroso (2013, pp. 283–286).
- 27.
The opinion of the Brazilian Federal Senate is available via http://legis.senado.leg.br/sdleg-getter/documento?dm=5225079&disposition=inline.
- 28.
We would like to draw attention to the veto of article 1, § 2 of the new law, which used to provide rights to indigenous peoples and traditional populations: “the original rights of indigenous peoples and traditional populations, especially the right to free movement in traditionally occupied lands, are fully guaranteed”—see Vasconcelos et al. (2018, p. 87). According to Paulo Henrique Faria Nunes, this provision was consequence of the ongoing law evolution on the subject. In this context, the author highlights Convention No. 169 of the International Labor Organization on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples, from 1989, as well as the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), from 2007. Nunes considers the veto a delicate subject, once in Brazil there are indigenous populations on border regions and the Brazilian Constitution considers the borderland strip a fundamental issue for the sake of the defense of the national territory. For more considerations on the subject, see: Nunes (2017, p. 34). In fact, the reasons for the veto of this provision was: “The provision violates the articles 1, I; 20, §2; and 231 of the Constitution of the Republic, which settle the defense of the national territory as an element of sovereignty, by means of the actions of Brazilian institutions at the frontier points on the control of entrance and departure of indigenous peoples and non-indigenous peoples, and the Union’s attribution to fix the boundaries of traditionally occupied lands to protect and grant respect for the property of the Brazilian indigenous peoples.”, see: Vasconcelos et al. (2018, p. 87).
- 29.
See: UN General Assembly, New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants; resolution/adopted by the General Assembly, 3 October 2016, UN doc. A/RES/71/1, p. 5.
- 30.
Crimmigration is a term used to describe the convergence of the criminal justice and immigration law and enforcement systems and is one of the most debated points when referring to the current migration policy of the United States. For more details on the USA’s migration policy and on how crimmigration has been proposing a race-based approach in that country, see: Armenta (2017). The term crimmigration was thought by Juliet Stumpf, who realized that two areas of law (criminal law and immigration law) had wrapped themselves together and in which “criminal law is poised to swallow immigration law”. According to her, “Immigration law today is clothed with so many attributes of criminal law that the line between them has grown indistinct.”, see Stumpf (2006, p. 376). Also, in order to better understand the “criminology of mobility” as a new field of study, as well as the process of mobility based on two outcomes (criminal sentence and deportation), see: Stumpf (2013). For a more specific debate on crimmigration, focused on the Brazilian perspective, see: Moraes (2016), and, from the perspective of the new Brazilian migration law, see: Amaral and Costa (2017).
- 31.
Important to mention the significance of the New York Declaration, even if it is a soft law instrument. For Manisha Thomas, the Declaration is historic, once “never before (…) so many States committed to responding better to refugees and migrants.”, see: Thomas (2017, p. 69). It is important to note that, because Nunes uses the New York Declaration as a parameter of comparison, we are not mentioning UN’s latest development on migration and refugees which is The Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (GCM) from December 2018. According to IOM’s website, “The Global Compact is the first inter-governmentally negotiated agreement, prepared under the auspices of the United Nations, covering all dimensions of international migration in a holistic and comprehensive manner. It is a non-binding document that respects states’ sovereign right to determine who enters and stays in their territory and demonstrates commitment to international cooperation on migration”, available via https://www.iom.int/global-compact-migration. The Brazilian Government communicated in January 2019 that it would leave the Global Compact for Migration.
- 32.
Kelsen affirms that once the State decides for the admission of a non-national into its territory, the legal order of the state in the territory of which the foreigner is staying must grant him/her a minimum of rights, “and must not impose upon (…) certain duties (…)”. “As far as the rights are concerned, every state is by general international law obliged to grant to aliens at least equality before the law with its citizens in respect to safety of persons and property” (Kelsen 1952, p. 243). Even though this principle is still applied, it should not be mistaken for the principles on which refugee matters are based. Refugee Law issues are based on specific treaties (such as the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees), and also on human rights treaties and principles, such as for example the non-refoulement principle, which should be primarily considered. On the admission and non-rejection of persons at risk, see: Perruchoud (2012, pp. 131–135).
- 33.
Saskia Sassen explains from the exclusive territoriality of the modern (and classic model of) state until how globalization contributes to a new geography of power. The author also analyzes how economic globalization denationalizes national economies and how immigration is renationalizing politics. According to her, states try to “lift border controls for the flow of capital, information, and services and, more broadly, to further globalization.” However, “when it comes to immigrants and refugees, whether in North America, Western Europe, or Japan, the national state claims all its old splendor in asserting its sovereign right to control its borders”, see: Sassen (1996, p. 63).
- 34.
This does not mean that the visitor is not allowed to get payment from a Brazilian source. The new law, in its article 13, § 2, as well as Decree No. 9,199/2017, in its article 29, § 9, state that the beneficiary of the visitor visa is allowed to receive payment from the Brazilian government, from a Brazilian employer, or from a Brazilian private entity in the form of travel allowance, subsistence allowance, artistic fees, remuneration or other travel expenses, as well as to compete for prizes, including cash prizes, in sports competitions or in artistic or cultural competitions.
- 35.
The visitor visa will not be required in case of stopover or connection within the Brazilian territory, provided that the visitor does not leave the international transit area, as provided by Article 13, § 3 of the new Migration Law, as well as by article 29, § 10 of Decree No. 9,199/2017.
- 36.
Not only reasons for the waiver of the visitor visa or the definition of special categories of visitor visa, but also the validity/duration of the visitor visa (which, as a general rule, is from one year according to article 15 of the Decree) might be reduced by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (article 15, § 2, Decree No. 9,199/2017).
- 37.
The Foreigners’ Statute used to present eight purposes for the issuing of a temporary visa, while the new law provides twelve, as presented in the following lines.
- 38.
It is important not to mistake the visitor visa for the temporary visa, once both of them might also be issued, for example, for the conduction of artistic or sports activities.
- 39.
CNIg has already produced more than 90 Resolutions. Apart from developing immigration policies and coordinating immigration activities, CNIg is a body from the Ministry for Labor, which is responsible for the completion of Brazil’s migration national policy. For more information on CNIg, see: Lopes (2009, pp. 562–564).
- 40.
Some aspects on the protection to refugees in Brazil have to be presented in this section of the book, once it is essential for the understanding of the current Migration Law.
- 41.
The Normative Resolutions from CNIg, which are currently in force, are available via http://trabalho.gov.br/mais-informacoes/cni/nova-legislacao.
- 42.
The non-refoulement principle contained in the Geneva Convention represents the main obligation for the states on human rights issues. The principle, provided by Art. 33 of the Convention, protects refugees through banning States from expelling or from returning refugees in case their lives or freedom would be in danger or threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion.
- 43.
This simplifies the proceedings of making a refugee a regular/legal immigrant within Brazilian territory, as many of them do not have sufficient documents, which prove their entry into the country.
- 44.
- 45.
International judicial cooperation consists of the set of international and national rules governing acts of collaboration between states, or even between states and International Organizations, with the aim of facilitating access to justice, see: Ramos (2013, p. 624).
- 46.
As debated by Long (2011, pp. 232–241).
- 47.
Innovation relatively considered, as the Ministry of Justice has already recognized the repatriation as an autonomous compulsory exit measure of immigrants, see: Nunes (2017, p. 115).
- 48.
Reasons for the refusal of entry into Brazilian territory, according to article 45 of Brazil’s Migration Law, might be given to a person: who was previously expelled from the country as long as the effects of the expulsion are in force; who was convicted or is facing trial due to act of terrorism or to the crime of genocide, to crime against humanity, to war crime or to a crime of aggression; who was convicted or is responding to proceedings in another country for a willful crime subject to extradition under Brazilian law; who has had the name included in a list of restrictions due to judicial order or to commitment assumed by Brazil before an international organization; who presents a travel document that is not valid for Brazil, is expired, or is scratched out or is or appears to be false; who does not present an adequate travel document; whose reason for travel is not consistent with the visa or with the reason for the visa exemption; who defrauded his/her documents or provided false information when applying for a visa or who has committed an act contrary to the principles and purposes established in Brazilian Constitution.
- 49.
Legal expression of the principle of humanity combined with the respect to the rule of law is, for example, Article 32 of the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (Geneva Convention), which establishes that “The Contracting States shall not expel a refugee lawfully in their territory save on grounds of national security or public order and in pursuance of a decision reached in accordance with the process of law.” The entire text of the Geneva Convention, including its protocol, is available via http://www.unhcr.org/3b66c2aa10.
- 50.
The Foreigners’ Statute did not provide that “socio-affective dependency” between the child and the foreigner to be expelled could be a reason not to perform the expulsion. This provision was added to the new law, after many decisions of the Brazilian Superior Court of Justice (Superior Tribunal de Justiça—STJ), under the aegis of the revoked law, prohibited the expulsion of a foreigner because the child did not depend economically, but social-sentimentally on the mother/father to be expelled. In this sense, see: HC No. 38946, judged on May 11, 2005, DJ 06.27.2005, p. 205; HC No 31449, judged on May 12, 2004, DJ 05.31.2004, p. 169; HC No. 43604, judged on August 10, 2005, DJ 08.29.2005, p. 139; HC No. 90760, judged on February 27, 2008, DJ 03.17.2008, p. 1; and HC 88882, judged on February 27, 2008, DJ 03.17.2008, p. 1. Also, there are some decisions of the Brazilian Supreme Federal Court (STF) in the sense that, even if the child was conceived after the foreigner had committed a crime, the Brazilian State shall not proceed with his/her expulsion proceedings. See, in this sense: HC No. 114.901, judged on October 25, 2013, DJ-e-215 10.30.2013; and Rec. Extr. No 608.898, judged on March 10, 2011, DJe-186 09.28.2011. Dolinger and Tiburcio (2016, pp. 220–225) are very critical to both of these aspects (socio-affective dependency and children conceived after perpetration of the crime) related to expulsion proceedings.
- 51.
Available via: http://www.refworld.org/docid/5539ee604.html.
- 52.
Available via http://undocs.org/A/C.6/72/L.13.
- 53.
Article 115 of Brazil’s Migration Law has modified Brazil’s Criminal Code, adding article 232-A to it, penalizing also under Criminal Law facilitators who promote, by any means, illegal migration, with the aim of obtaining economic advantage of the illegal entry of a foreigner in the national territory or of a Brazilian in a foreign country. Likewise, if facilitators promote, with the aim of obtaining economic advantage, the exit of a foreigner from the national territory so as to illegally enter a foreign country, they will also be subject to a penalty of 2 (two) to 5 (five) years of imprisonment.
- 54.
The amount of the fine is determined during the administrative process the irregular immigrant or facilitator is subject to and follows the instructions contained in articles 300 to 311 of Decree No. 9,199/2017.
- 55.
On a deeper explanation of an immigrant’s levels of compliance, on the illegal immigrant under Brazilian law and on the veto to article 118 of the new Brazilian migration law, see: Castro and Ribeiro (2018).
- 56.
Referring herewith not only to MERCOSUL, but also to all of the many integration movements and agreements that have emerged and disappeared since the 1960s, such as the Latin America Free Trade Association (LAFTA), the Andean Pact, the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM), the Latin American Integration Association (LAIA), and more recently in 2019, the Union of South American Nations (USAN). For more details see: Baquero-Herrera (2005).
- 57.
As an example, the failure of the Latin American Free Trade Association (LAFTA), as well as the difficulties of the Latin American Integration Association (ALADI), see: Vasconcelos (2017, p. 64).
- 58.
On the legality of the admission of Venezuela, see: Sloboda (2015).
- 59.
The first time there was an attempt to created a customs union in Latin America was in 1909, when Argentina, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay started—without success—to negotiate an agreement in this sense. See: Vasconcelos (2017, p. 66).
- 60.
In this sense, focusing on the idea of social justice that the Asunción Treaty provides, see: Santestevan (2007, p. 365).
- 61.
See the full text of the Ouro Preto Protocol via http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/decreto/d1901.htm.
- 62.
In reality, this goal could not be achieved. Vegevani and Ramanzini mention many reasons for that, including the fact that the norms debated in the Joint Parliamentary Commission were not decisive for the sake of the integration process. The Commission remained as a body depended on the Executive Power and merely with an advisory character. For further details, see: Vigevani and Ramanzini Júnior (2013, p. 203).
- 63.
For more information on the suspension of Paraguay in 2012, after President Lugo’s impeachment process, see: Monte and Anastasia (2017, p. 12).
- 64.
- 65.
As of February 2020, Member States of MERCOSUL are: Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and Bolivia (Bolivia signed the Protocol of Adhesion to MERCOSUL in 2015, which will only enter into force when all Member States of MERCOSUL ratify the protocol).
- 66.
This explanation on the levels of integration can be found in Carneiro (2007, pp. 283–284).
- 67.
On the possible development of MERCOSUL into a common market: see: Casella (2003).
- 68.
The mentioned list is available via http://www.mdic.gov.br/comercio-exterior/estatisticas-de-comercio-exterior-9/arquivos-atuais under “Lista de Exceções à TEC”.
- 69.
- 70.
For a complete and detailed understanding of MERCOSUL’s legal framework, see: Giupponi (2010).
- 71.
Original text of article 1, in Portuguese: “Este Mercado Comum implica: A livre circulação de bens, serviços e fatores produtivos entre os países, através, entre outros, da eliminação dos direitos alfandegários e restrições não tarifárias à circulação de mercadorias e de qualquer outra medida de efeito equivalente”. Available via http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/decreto/1990-1994/d0350.htm.
- 72.
In the same sense, see: Araya (1998, p. 144).
- 73.
As explained in the previous section, the Ouro Preto Protocol does not set deadlines or sanctions in case of no internalization of the MERCOSUL norms in each of the Member States.
- 74.
- 75.
On this issue also see Mansueti (2010, p. 249).
- 76.
Artigo 41
As fontes jurídicas do Mercosul são:
-
I
o Tratado de Assunção, seus protocolos e os instrumentos adicionais ou complementares;
-
II
os acordos celebrados no âmbito do Tratado de Assunção e seus protocolos;
-
III
as Decisões do Conselho do Mercado Comum, as Resoluções do Grupo Mercado Comum e as Diretrizes da Comissão do Mercosul, adotadas deste a entrada em vigor do Tratado de Assunção.
-
I
- 77.
For further information on MERCOSUL’s sources of law, see: Giupponi (2012).
- 78.
Nevertheless, some of these Declarations should be cited, such as the Special Declaration of the States Parties and Associated States of Mercosul on the Humanitarian Crisis of Migratory Movements’ Management (Declaração Especial dos Estados Partes e Estados Associados do Mercosul Sobre a Crise Humanitária de Gestão dos Movimentos Migratórios), from December 21st 2015, as well as the Special Declaration of the States Parties and Associated States of Mercosul on the Situation of Central American Migrant Children and Adolescents Retained at the Southern Border of the United States of America (Declaração Especial dos Estados Partes e Estados Associados do Mercosul sobre a Situação das Crianças e Adolescentes Centro-Americanos Migrantes Retidos na Fronteira Sul dos Estados Unidos da América), from October, 7th 2014. These and other Declarations are available via http://www.mercosur.int/innovaportal/v/4677/3/innova.front/declarac%C3%B5es-e-decis%C3%B5es-presidenciais.
- 79.
On the Social-Labor Declaration, it must be stated that there are discussions on its legal nature, as well as on its enforceability. For more details, see: Mansueti (2010, pp. 249–251).
- 80.
The complete organic structure of MERCOSUL is available via http://www.mercosur.int/msweb/portal%20intermediario/es/estructura.html#gmc.
- 81.
According to the Brazilian version of MERCOSUL’s official website, the most recent developments of the Plan of Action towards the creation of a MERCOSUL citizenship include, but are not limited to: the development of MERCOSUL’s mobility integrated system (SIMERCOSUL), which perceives the amplification and unification of scholarship programs for the exchange of students, professors and researches in higher education institutions; the creation of a common model for vehicle identification signs; the revision of the Recife Agreement, regulating an integrated border control and facilitating the migratory flows between the State Parties; the harmonization of labor and social security legislations. See: http://www.mercosul.gov.br/o-mercosul-na-vida-do-cidadao/estatuto-da-cidadania.
- 82.
The Educational Integration Protocol on the Recognition of Certificates, Degrees, and Primary- and Non-Technical Secondary-Level Studies (approved in 1994 under MERCOSUL/CMC/DEC. No. 4/94) was signed in 2002, ratified by Brazil in 2008 and internalized in Brazil by Decree No. 6.729, from 12 January 2009 under the name Protocolo de Integração Educativa e Reconhecimento de Certificados e Estudos de Nível Fundamental e Médio Não-Técnico entre os Estados Partes do Mercosul, Bolívia e Chile, assinado em Brasília, em 5 de dezembro de 2002. Also the Educational Integration Protocol on the Revalidation of Diplomas, Certificates and Degrees, and the Recognition of Secondary-Level Technical Studies (approved in 1995 under MERCOSUL/CMC/DEC. N° 7/95) was signed in 1995, and became internally valid in Brazil through Decree No. 2.689, from 28 July 1998 under the name Protocolo de Integração Educacional, Revalidação de Diplomas, Certificados, Títulos e de Reconhecimentos de Estudo de Nível Médio Técnico. Lastly, the Educational Integration Protocol on the Recognition of University Degrees for the Pursuit of Postgraduate Studies at the University of MERCOSUL countries (approved in 1996 under MERCOSUL/CMC/DEC. No. 8/96) entered into force in Brazil in 1999 and was internalized by Decree No. 3.196, from 5 October 199 under the name Protocolo de Integração Educacional para Prosseguimento de Estudos de Pós-Graduação nas Universidades dos Estados Partes do Mercosul.
Another instrument in the field of education, which is also important to mention, refers to the Agreement on Titles and University Degrees for the Exert of Academic Activities in MERCOSUL Member States (free translation from Acordo de Admissão de Títulos e Graus Universitários para o Exercício de Atividades Acadêmicas nos Estados Partes do Mercosul), which was ratified by Brazil in 2004 and entered into force in Brazil in 2005, through Decree No. 5.518, from 23 August 2005. According to this agreement, the academic exchange between the higher education institutions in the MERCOSUL countries shall be facilitated, in order to optimize the scientific, technological and cultural qualification of the academics in the MERCOSUL Member States. For more information on the recognition of Masters’ and Doctorate titles from the MERCOSUL countries, see: Mazzuoli (2011).
- 83.
The Protocol is available via http://investmentpolicyhub.unctad.org/Download/TreatyFile/2463.
- 84.
Annexes on Financial Services, Annex on Land and Water Transport, Annex on Air Transport Services.
- 85.
Such as: managers and executive directors, business administrators, legal representatives, scientists, researchers, professors, artists, sportsmen, journalists, highly qualified technicians, higher education specialists and professionals.
- 86.
Documento de Viaje Provisorio MERCOSUR or Documento de Viagem Provisório do MERCOSUL.
- 87.
MERCOSUL/CMC/DEC N° 38/04.
- 88.
According to search on the CMC decision No. 38/04 entered at https://www.dnm.gov.ar/extranet/infomig_new/index.php. See also: Ventura et al. (2012, p. 57).
- 89.
Internalized by Brazil in 2009, under Decreto No. 6.975, from 7 October 2009, available via http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2007-2010/2009/decreto/d6975.htm.
- 90.
It is important to mention that, during the same meeting of the Common Market Council, it was also approved the Agreement on Residence for Nationals of the State Parties of MERCOSUL (Acordo sobre Residência para Nacionais dos Estados Partes do MERCOSUL), which entered into force on 6 December 2002 within MERCOSUL State Parties. This Agreement was also internalized under Brazilian law under Decreto No. 6.964, from 29 September 2009, available via http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2007-2010/2009/Decreto/D6964.htm. The Agreement on Residence for Nationals of the State Parties of MERCOSUL includes, as its names indicates, the very same conditions on residence, but exclusively to MERCOSUL’s State Parties. Because of this similarity, we decide to refer to and analyze the text of the Agreement on Residence for Nationals of the State Parties of MERCOSUL and Bolivia and Chile only, as it includes more countries even though both of the agreements are part of Brazilian law.
- 91.
See Decreto n° 6.975, from 7 Oct 2009, art. 8 (2).
- 92.
According to Normative Instruction No. 111 from 1 Feb 2010 of the National Department of Commercial Registration (DNRC—Departamento Nacional de Registro do Comércio), a department of the Ministry of Industry, Foreign Trade and Services. See: Ventura et al. (2012, pp. 61–62).
- 93.
Artigo 9
DIREITO DOS IMIGRANTES E DOS MEMBROS DE SUAS FAMÍLIAS
1. IGUALDADE DE DIREITOS CIVIS: Os nacionais das Partes e suas famílias, que houverem obtido residência, nos termos do presente Acordo, gozarão dos mesmos direitos e liberdades civis, sociais, culturais e econômicas dos nacionais do país de recepção, em particular o direito a trabalhar e exercer toda atividade lícita, nas condições que dispõem as leis; peticionar às autoridades; entrar, permanecer, transitar e sair do território das Partes; associar-se para fins lícitos e professar livremente seu culto, conforme as leis que regulamentam seu exercício.
2. REUNIÃO FAMILIAR: Aos membros da família que não tenham a nacionalidade de um dos Estados Partes, será concedida uma autorização de residência de idêntica vigência a da pessoa da qual dependam, sempre e quando apresentem a documentação que estabelece o artigo 3o e não possuam impedimentos. Se, por sua nacionalidade, os membros da família necessitarem de vistos para ingressar no país, deverão tramitar a residência ante a autoridade consular, salvo quando, nos termos das normas internas do país de recepção, este último requisito não seja necessário.
3. IGUALDADE DE TRATAMENTO COM OS NACIONAIS: Os imigrantes gozarão, no território das Partes, de tratamento não menos favorável do que recebem os nacionais do país de recepção, no que concerne à aplicação da legislação trabalhista, especialmente em matéria de remuneração, condições de trabalho e seguro social.
4. COMPROMISSO EM MATÉRIA PREVIDÊNCIÁRIA: As partes analizarão (sic) a exequibilidade de firmar acordos de reciprocidade em matéria previdenciária (sic).
5. DIREITO DE TRANSFERIR RECURSOS: Os imigrantes das Partes terão direito a transferir livremente, ao seu país de origem, sua renda e suas economias pessoais, em particular os valores necessários ao sustento de seus familiares, em conformidade com as normativas e legislação interna de cada uma das Partes.
6. DIREITO DOS FILHOS DOS IMIGRANTES: Os filhos dos imigrantes, que houverem nascido no território de uma das Partes, terão direito a ter um nome, ao registro de seu nascimento e a ter uma nacionalidade, em conformidade com as respectivas legislações internas.
Os filhos dos imigrantes gozarão, no território das Partes, do direito fundamental de acesso à educação em condições de igualdade com os nacionais do país de recepção. O acesso às instituições de ensino pré-escolar ou às escolas públicas não poderá ser negado ou limitar-se a circunstancial situação irregular de permanência dos pais.
- 94.
Due to the scope of this work, analyses based on MERCOSUL’s legal provisions on migration will solely refer to the consequences and developments in Brazil’s internal legal order.
- 95.
For more information on the process see the website of Brazil’s Federal Police Office at http://www.pf.gov.br/servicos-pf/imigracao/pedido-de-permanencia/pedido-de-transformacao-acordo-mercosul (for the permanent registry) and at http://www.pf.gov.br/servicos-pf/imigracao/cedula-de-identidade-de-estrangeiro/registro-temporario-acordo-mercosul-e-associados (for the temporary one).
- 96.
The Agreement is available via http://www.mercosur.int/msweb/portal%20intermediario/Normas/normas_web/Decisiones/PT/Dec_048_000_Acordo%20Isen%C3%A7%C3%A3o%20de%20Vistos_Ata%202_00.PDF. As of February 2020, the Agreement has not yet entered into force.
- 97.
Relevant not only in terms of thematic, but also because they either have been approved by Brazilian Legislative Power or because they have in fact entered into force under Brazilian law.
- 98.
MERCOSUL/CMC/DEC No. 19/97.
- 99.
The multilateral agreement has been internalized under Brazilian law under Decreto No. 5722 of 13 March 2006, available via http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2004-2006/2006/decreto/d5722.htm.
- 100.
MERCOSUL/GMC/RES. No. 75/96.
- 101.
Namely: Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela. The Decision CMC No. 18/08 is available via http://www.mercosur.int/innovaportal/v/584/2/innova.front/decisiones-2008.
- 102.
- 103.
- 104.
Succinctly, according to the POP, in its article 42, the norms derived from MERCOSUL bodies (i.e., GMC, CMC, and CCM) are binding and shall, when necessary, be incorporated into Member States’ legal order according to their internal law-making process. The expression “when necessary” presented by POP’s wording caused innumerous discussions. In this context, Decision CMC No. 23/00 has been created in order to clarify what has been stated by the POP. According to article 5 of this Decision, the norms emanated from the abovementioned bodies do not need to go through law-making processes in each of MERCOSUL’s Member States when (i) the Member States conjointly understand that the content of a specific norm is related to the internal functioning of MERCOSUL. In this case, the MERCOSUL norms will enter into force by the time of its approval; (ii) there is already a national law in force, which contemplates the exact same terms of the MERCOSUL norm.
The internalization of MERCOSUL’s norms in the Member States’ legal order is an often discussed topic which involves not only legal, but also political issues, requiring, therefore, deeper analysis, which is not in the scope of this work. For more information on MERCOSUL’s rules for incorporating/internalizing MERCOSUL law, see: Rocha (2011) and Ventura et al. (2012).
- 105.
MERCOSUL/CMC/DEC. No. 28/02.
- 106.
MERCOSUL/RMI/ATA N°2/10, available via https://gestorweb.mercosur.int/files/564e87c9c9344903fc3df798.
- 107.
The Specialized Forum on Migration (Foro Especializado Migratório do Mercosul e Estados Associados—FEM) is an advisory body composed by the Ministers of Interior and by the Ministers of Social Development of MERCOSUL’s Member States which played a relevant role on the drafting of the Residence Agreement and all its correlate agreements. The FEM was founded during the XIV Meeting of Ministers of the Interior, which took place in Montevideo in 2003. Therefore, the FEM is subjected to the Meetings of Internal Affairs Ministers, which forward its discussed topics on migration to the CMC, which might or not adopt the decisions of the Ministers. Since 2004, FEM has been working on MERCOSUL’s institutional memory on migration matters and offers free access to many relevant migration-related topics at http://www.migraciones.gov.ar/foro_migratorio/. For more information on FEM, see: Carneiro (2015, pp. 72–73).
- 108.
The Brasília Declaration corresponds to Annex IV of MERCOSUR/RMI/ATA N°2/10, and is available via https://gestorweb.mercosur.int/files/564e87cac9344903fc3df7b4.
- 109.
For practical reasons, during this work, we will refer to the expression “MERCOSUL citizens” even though it has been proved that the creation of such a citizenship is still being developed.
- 110.
- 111.
A list of all MERCOSUL treaties and acts is available via http://www.mre.gov.py/tratados/public_web/ConsultaMercosur.aspx.
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Lana de Freitas Castro, E. (2020). The Legal Framework of Migration in Brazil and in MERCOSUL. In: Transnational Law of Human Mobility. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46608-4_4
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