Abstract
A large proportion of couples rely on behavioral methods of contraception, at least intermittently or at some point in their lives. These methods rely on knowledge about male and female reproductive physiology and the menstrual cycle rather than medications, herbs, devices, or barriers to prevent pregnancy. Behavioral methods can be divided into two categories: methods that do not rely on the menstrual cycle (i.e., abstinence or coitus interruptus) and methods that rely on the menstrual cycle. Methods that rely on the menstrual cycle can be further subdivided into Fertility Awareness Methods (FAM) and “Natural” Family Planning (NFP). FAM includes methods that rely on women to monitor physiologic changes during their menstrual cycle whereas NFP relies on the menstrual calendar only to distinguish likely fertile from nonfertile days.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Finer LB, Philbin JM. Sexual initiation, contraceptive use, and pregnancy among young adolescents. Pediatrics. 2013;131(5):886–91.
Kirby D, Korpi M, Barth RP, Cagampang HH. The impact of the postponing sexual involvement curriculum among youths in California. Fam Plan Perspect. 1997;29(3):100–8.
Kirby D. Emerging answers 2007: research findings on programs to reduce teen pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. Washington, DC: National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy; 2007.
Moser W, Jones J. Use of contraception in the United Sates: 1982–2008. National Center for Health Statistics. Vital Health Stat. 2010;23(29): 1–44.
Dude A, Neustadt A, Martins S, Gilliam M. Use of withdrawal and unintended pregnancy among females 15–24 years of age. Obstet Gynecol. 2013;122(3):595–600.
de Vincenzi I. A longitudinal study of human immunodeficiency virus transmission by heterosexual partners. European study group on heterosexual transmission of HIV. New Engl J Med. 1994;331(6):341–6.
Kinsey A, Pomeroy W, Martin C, Gebhard P. Sexual behavior in the human female. Philadelphia: WA Saunders; 1953.
Kaye K, Suellentrop K, Sloup C. The fog zone: how misperceptions, magical thinking, and ambivalence put young adults at risk for unplanned pregnancy. Washington, DC: The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy; 2009.
Wilcox AJ, Dunson D, Baird DD. The timing of the “fertile window” in the menstrual cycle: day specific estimates from a prospective study. Br Med J. 2000;321(7271):1259–62.
World Health Organization Task Force on Methods for the Determination of the Fertile Period Special Program of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction. A prospective multicentre trial of the ovulation method of natural family planning. II. The effectiveness phase. Fertil Steril. 1981;36(5):591–8.
Hatcher RA, Trussell J, Nelson AL, Cates W, Kowal D, Policar M, editors. Contraceptive technology: twentieth revised edition. New York: Ardent Media; 2011.
World Health Organization Task Force on Methods for the Determination of the Fertile Period Special Program of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction. A prospective multicentre trial of the ovulation method of natural family planning. I. The teaching phase. Fertil Steril. 1981;36(2):152–8.
Burkhart MC, de Mazariegos L, Salazar S, Hess T. Incidence of irregular cycles among Mayan women who reported having regular cycles: implications for fertility awareness methods. Contraception. 1999;59(4):271–5.
Lamprecht VM, Grummer-Strawn L. Development of new formulas to identify the fertile time of the menstrual cycle. Contraception. 1996;54(6):339–43.
Frank-Herrmann P, Heil J, Gnoth C, Toledo E, Baur S, Pyper C, et al. The effectiveness of a fertility awareness based method to avoid pregnancy in relation to a couple’s sexual behaviour during the fertile time: a prospective longitudinal study. Hum Reprod. 2007;22(5):1310–9.
Arevalo M, Jennings V, Sinai I. Efficacy of a new method of family planning: the standard days method. Contraception. 2002;65(5):333–8.
World Health Organization Task Force on Methods for the Determination of the Fertile Period Special Program of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction. A prospective multicentre trial of the ovulation method of natural family planning. III. Characteristics of the menstrual cycle and of the fertile phase. Fertil Steril. 1983;40(6):773–8.
Arevalo M, Jennings V, Nikula M, Sinai I. Efficacy of the new TwoDay method of family planning. Fertil Steril. 2004;82(4):885–92.
Jennings V, Sinai I, Sacieta L, Lundgren R. TwoDay method: a quick-start approach. Contraception. 2011;84(2):144–9.
Lerma K, Reyes G, Tiwari S, Tewari A, Hastings C, Blumenthal PD. Acceptability of a text message-based fertility awareness application for family planning in Lucknow, India. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2018;142(1):104–7. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijgo.12488.
Duane M, Contreras A, Jensen ET, White A. The performance of fertility awareness-based method apps marketed to avoid pregnancy. J Am Board Fam Med. 2016;29(4):508–11. https://doi.org/10.3122/jabfm.2016.04.160022.
Bull J, Rowland S, Lundberg O, et al. Typical use effectiveness of natural cycles: postmarket surveillance study investigating the impact of previous contraceptive choice on the risk of unintended pregnancy. BMJ Open. 2019;9:e026474. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-026474.
Berglund Scherwitzl E, Lundberg O, Kopp Kallner H, Gemzell Danielsson K, Trussell J, Scherwitzl R. Perfect-use and typical-use pearl index of a contraceptive mobile app. Contraception. 2017;96(6):420–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2017.08.014.
Jennings V, Haile LT, Simmons RG, Spieler J, Shattuck D. Perfect- and typical-use effectiveness of the Dot fertility app over 13 cycles: results from a prospective contraceptive effectiveness trial. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care. 2019;24(2):148–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/13625187.2019.1581164.
Bouchard TP, Genuis SJ. Personal fertility monitors for contraception. Can Med Assoc J. 2011;183(1):73–6.
Fehring RJ, Schneider M, Barron ML. Efficacy of the Marquette method of natural family planning. MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs. 2008;33(6):348–54.
Leiva R, Burhan U, Kyrillos E, Fehring R, McLaren R, Dalzell C, et al. Use of ovulation predictor kits as adjuncts when using fertility awareness methods (FAMs): a pilot study. J Am Board Fam Med. 2014;27(3):427–9.
Freundl G, Godehardt E, Kern PA, Frank-Herrmann P, Koubenec HJ, Gnoth C. Estimated maximum failure rates of cycle monitors using daily conception probabilities in the menstrual cycle. Hum Reprod. 2003;18(12):2628–33.
Van derWijden C, Manion C. Lactational amenorrhoea method for family planning. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;10:Art. No.: CD001329. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD001329.pub2.
Visness CM, Kennedy KI, Gross BA, Parenteau-Carreau S, Flynn AM, Brown JB. Fertility of fully breast-feeding women in the early postpartum period. Obstet Gynecol. 1997;89(2):164–7.
World Health Organization Task Force on Methods for the Natural Regulation of Fertility. The World Health Organization multinational study of breast-feeding and lactational amenorrhea. III. Pregnancy during breast-feeding. Fertil Steril. 1999;72(3):431–40.
Riman T, Nilsson S, Persson IR. Review of epidemiological evidence for reproductive and hormonal factors in relation to the risk of epithelial ovarian malignancies. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2004;83(9):783–95.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Altshuler, A.L., Blumenthal, P.D. (2020). Behavioral Methods of Contraception. In: Shoupe, D. (eds) The Handbook of Contraception. Current Clinical Practice. Humana, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46391-5_12
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46391-5_12
Published:
Publisher Name: Humana, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-46390-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-46391-5
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)