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The European Union as a Protector and Promoter of Equality: Discrimination on Grounds of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity

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Book cover The European Union as Protector and Promoter of Equality

Part of the book series: European Union and its Neighbours in a Globalized World ((EUNGW,volume 1))

Abstract

While as a group the EU Member States are among the most advanced countries when it comes to protection and non-discrimination of LGBTI (lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, intersex) persons, there remain huge differences among them. This is reflected in the limited competences of EU in this field (e.g. family law, education etc.). Even when the EU is competent to take concrete measures, they are normally subject to unanimity rules which makes progress slow. At the same time, the achievement of certain accepted goals with regard to other policies (internal market, security and asylum, staff regulations etc.) has made possible certain compromises between the Member States that have improved the situation (sometimes only after a clarification through the case law of the ECJ). In addition, despite the uneven acceptance within the UE, in its foreign relations the EU (or at least certain actors like most importantly the Parliament) the EU is increasingly demanding a minimum threshold regarding he respect of human rights (also of LGBTI persons). This is particularly importance for so-called candidate countries and in commercial relations with developing countries.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See Council of the EU, Presidency Conclusions - The application of the Charter of Fundamental Rights in 2017 (Doc. 13093/18 of 12 October 2018): “The discussions in Council have not led to reaching a consensus on conclusions on the application of the Charter of Fundamental Rights in 2017. However, the Presidency concluded that the text annexed was supported or not objected to by 27 delegations. … § 37. It is noted that that LGBTI persons are still frequently victims of discrimination, physical violence and incitement to hatred and violence throughout the EU. Therefore, the Council’s 2016 Conclusions on LGBTI equality are recalled 7 and the Annual Report 2017 on the list of actions by the Commission to advance LGBTI equality, which was presented on 1 March 2018, on Zero Discrimination Day it is acknowledged with interest. …” (online at: http://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-13093-2018-INIT/en/pdf).

  2. 2.

    See European Parliamentary Research Service (2019) and Council of the EU (2018).

  3. 3.

    See Stikker (1951), pp. 436–444.

  4. 4.

    See Ziegler (2011), pp. 219–240.

  5. 5.

    See for details Wintemute (2017), pp. 180–203 or Pudzianowska and Śmiszek (2015).

  6. 6.

    See for example Gonzalez-Salzberg (2019); Johnson and Falcetta (2018), pp. 167–185; Shahid (2017).

  7. 7.

    Most of this language (and the one found now in Art. 3.3 and 10) was originally introduced by the Treaty of Amsterdam in 1997 (OJ C 340, 10.11.1997) and later also incorporated into the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (in 2000) and the Draft Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe (OJ C 169, 18.7.2003, pp. 1–150). For the time before, see Waaldijk and Clapham (1993).

  8. 8.

    “The Union is founded on the values of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities. These values are common to the Member States in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between women and men prevail.”

  9. 9.

    See for example the language used in the so-called Yogyakarta Principles, a set of principles developed by LGBTI in 2007 (updated in 2017) by activists that relate the specific situation of LGBT persons to the more general human rights discussion. See https://yogyakartaprinciples.org/.

  10. 10.

    As an example, one can mention the revised Swiss Constitution of 1998 where the wording “life style” was used to avoid clear reference to “sexual orientation” (and even more so “gender identity”).

  11. 11.

    See on the parallel development of a Directive establishing a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation in 2000 below.

  12. 12.

    See De Waele and Van der Vleuten (2011), pp. 639–666.

  13. 13.

    E.g. the Resolution (04.02.2014) on the EU Roadmap against homophobia and discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation and gender identity 2013/2183(INI), OJ C 93, 24.3.2017, p. 21.

  14. 14.

    European Parliament - Intergroup on LGBTI Rights: http://www.lgbt-ep.eu/about/.

  15. 15.

    For example, in February 2019, the European Parliament adopted a resolution on the rights of intersex people: European Parliament resolution on the rights of intersex people (2018/2878(RSP)). In addition, in March 2018, a majority of representatives in the European Parliament passed a resolution in a 435-109 vote condemning conversion therapy and urging European Union Member States to ban the practice (European Parliament resolution of 1 March 2018 on the situation of fundamental rights in the EU in 2016 (2017/2125(INI)).

  16. 16.

    http://fra.europa.eu/en/theme/lgbt. See most recently: European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (2015).

  17. 17.

    Council Regulation 1922/2006/EC on establishing a European Institute for Gender Equality, OJ L 403/9–17 (2006).

  18. 18.

    http://www.ilga-europe.org.

  19. 19.

    http://www.sexualorientationlaw.eu.

  20. 20.

    See for an early and general assessment: Dubos (2007).

  21. 21.

    Council Directive 2004/33/EC implementing Directive 2002/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council as regards certain technical requirements for blood and blood components, OJ L 91/25 (2004).

  22. 22.

    Case 528/13, Léger v Ministre des Affaires sociales, de la Santé et des Droits des femmes, (ECJ 29 April 2015). See Belavusau and Isailović (2015).

  23. 23.

    See for example Sifonios (2011).

  24. 24.

    But there exists a Council Directive 2004/113/EC implementing the principle of equal treatment between men and women in the access to and supply of goods and services, OJ L 373/37 (2004).

  25. 25.

    Proposal for a Council Directive on implementing the principle of equal treatment outside the labour market, irrespective of age, disability, sexual orientation or religious belief, COM(2008)0426 - 2008/0140(CNS) of 02 July 2008.

  26. 26.

    See below 4.1.3.

  27. 27.

    See Ziegler (2011).

  28. 28.

    See for an early assessment of this problem Bull (2011), pp. 51–66 or Köhler (2011), pp. 309 ff. or early on Borrillo (2001), pp. 875–922.

  29. 29.

    See Falletti (2014), pp. 28–45.

  30. 30.

    Council Directive 2004/38/EC on the right of citizens of the Union and their family members to move and reside freely within the territory of the Member States amending Regulation (EEC) No 1612/68 and repealing Directives 64/221/EEC, 68/360/EEC, 72/194/EEC, 73/148/EEC, 75/34/EEC, 75/35/EEC, 90/364/EEC, 90/365/EEC and 93/96/EEC, OJ L 158/77–123 (2004).

  31. 31.

    Case 673/16, Coman & Hamilton, (ECJ 5 June 2018). See Tryfonidou (2018); Carlier (2019), pp. 203–221.

  32. 32.

    “In a situation in which a Union citizen has made use of his freedom of movement… whilst there, has created or strengthened a family life with a third-country national of the same sex to whom he is joined by a marriage lawfully concluded in the host Member State, Article 21(1) TFEU must be interpreted as precluding the competent authorities of the Member State of which the Union citizen is a national from refusing to grant that third-country national a right of residence in the territory of that Member State on the ground that the law of that Member State does not recognise marriage between persons of the same sex. …“Article 21(1) TFEU is to be interpreted as meaning that, in circumstances such as those of the main proceedings, a third-country national of the same sex as a Union citizen whose marriage to that citizen was concluded in a Member State in accordance with the law of that state has the right to reside in the territory of the Member State of which the Union citizen is a national for more than three months. That derived right of residence cannot be made subject to stricter conditions than those laid down in Article 7 of Directive 2004/38.”

  33. 33.

    See Fitzpatrick (2007), pp. 313–343.

  34. 34.

    Council Directive 2000/78/EC establishing a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation, OJ L 303/16–22.

  35. 35.

    There is as controversy as to the legitimacy of this difference in the scope of protection (‘hierarchy of grounds’) is legitimate and consistent with international human rights law. See e.g. Howard (2018); Lahuerta and Zbyszewska (2019).

  36. 36.

    See Waaldijk and Bonini-Baraldi (2006).

  37. 37.

    Case 13/94, P v S and Cornwall County Council, (ECJ 30 April 1996): trans persons protected under sex equality law, Article 5(1) of the Council Directive 76/207/EEC on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women as regards access to employment, vocational training and promotion, and working conditions, OJ L 039/40 (1976).

  38. 38.

    Case 117/01, K.B. v National Health Service Pensions Agency, (ECJ 7 January 2004): sex equality and inability to change one’s legal gender (Directive 75/117); Case 423/04, Richards v Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, (ECJ 27 April 2006): Directive 79/7; Case 451/16, MB v Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, (ECJ 26 June 2018).

  39. 39.

    Case 168/97, R. v Secretary of Richards v Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, (ECJ 27 April 2006): Directive 79/7; Case 451/16, MB v Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, (ECJ 26 June 2018).State for Defence, ex parte Perkins [1997], Application: OJ C 199/11 (1997); Removal from the register: OJ C 358/12 (1998). [Industrial Relations Law Reports 297 (3); (1997) 3 CMLR 310]: discrimination in the army still considered justified.

  40. 40.

    Case 249/96, Grant v South-West Trains Ltd, (ECJ 17 February 1998): travel concessions for her same-sex partner: no discrimination on the grounds of sex (too), but only on the grounds of sexual orientation, which was not protected.

  41. 41.

    The adoption of the so-called “Employment Directive” obliged all Member States to introduce legislation banning discrimination in employment on a number of grounds, including sexual orientation by December 2003. See Baer (2004).

  42. 42.

    Case 267/06, Tadao Maruko v Versorgungsanstalt der deutschen Bühnen, (ECJ 1 April 2008); Case 147/08, Jürgen Römer v Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg, (ECJ 10 May 2011): in search of the specific comparability between marriage and civil union; Case 81/12, Asociaţia ACCEPT v Consiliul Naţional pentru Combaterea Discriminării, (ECJ 25 April 2013); Case 267/12, Frédéric Hay v Crédit agricole mutuel de Charente-Maritime et des Deux-Sèvres, (ECJ 12 December 2013); Case 443/15, David Parris v Trinity College Dublin, (ECJ 24 November 2016).

  43. 43.

    Case 258/17, E.B. v Versicherungsanstalt öffentlich Bediensteter BVA, (ECJ 15 January 2019): “Article 2 of Council Directive 2000/78/EC of 27 November 2000 … must be interpreted as applying, after the expiry of the time limit for transposing that directive, namely from 3 December 2003, to the future effects of a final disciplinary decision, adopted before the entry into force of that directive, ordering the early retirement of a civil servant, accompanied by a reduction in his pension entitlement. … Directive 2000/78 must be interpreted as meaning that, in a situation such as that referred to in point 1 of the operative part of the present judgment, it obliges the national court to review, with respect to the period starting on 3 December 2003, not the final disciplinary decision ordering the early retirement of the civil servant concerned, but the reduction in his pension entitlement, in order to calculate the amount he would have received in the absence of any discrimination on the ground of sexual orientation.”.

  44. 44.

    Case T-264/97, D v Council of the European Union, (ECJ 28 January 1999); Case 122/99, P & C-125/99 P, D and Kingdom of Sweden v Council of the European Union, (ECJ 31 May 2001): non-recognition of registered relationships in Union Law justifies different domestic treatments.

  45. 45.

    Case F-86/09, W v Parliament, (EU Civil Service Tribunal (Second Chamber) 14 October 2010): Annex VII to the Staff Regulations had in the meantime been altered, providing benefits for spouses independently of their sex.

  46. 46.

    See Council of the European Union (2010) or EU Guidelines to promote and protect the enjoyment of all human rights by lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex persons adopted by the Foreign Affairs Council of 24 June 2013, <https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/guidelines-promote-and-protect-enjoyment-all-human-rights-lesbian-gay-bisexual-transgender-and_en>.

  47. 47.

    Council Decision 2000/750/EC of 27 November 2000 establishing a Community action programme to combat discrimination (2001 to 2006). From 1 January 2007, this programme was replaced by the so-called “PROGRESS Community programme” (Decision No 1672/2006/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 2006 establishing a Community Programme for Employment and Social Solidarity — Progress, OJ L 315/1–8 (2006).

  48. 48.

    A recent example would be the analysis made of Paraguay: European Commission (2019), Fact Sheet - EU trade policy encourages sustainable development and respect for human rights in vulnerable economies (Brussels, 19 January 2018): “Further attention is needed, in particular regarding the rights of indigenous peoples, violence and discrimination against women, child labour, discrimination against LGBT persons as well as the overall functioning of the justice system.”.

  49. 49.

    See for example Jansen and Spijkerboer (2011).

  50. 50.

    Council Directive 2004/83/EC on minimum standards for the qualification and status of third country nationals or stateless persons as refugees or as persons who otherwise need international protection and the content of the protection granted, OJ L 304/12–23 (2004); Repealed by Council Directive 2011/95/EU on standards for the qualification of third-country nationals or stateless persons as beneficiaries of international protection, for a uniform status for refugees or for persons eligible for subsidiary protection, and for the content of the protection granted, OJ L 337/9 (2011).

  51. 51.

    Here as in other areas, the role of the ECHR should not be forgotten: see Falcetta and Johnson (2018) and Byron (2016).

  52. 52.

    Article 10 §1 Letter d.

  53. 53.

    Case 199/12, Case 200/12 and Case 201/12 (joined), X, Y and Z v Minister voor Immigratie en Asiel, (ECJ 7 November 2013).

  54. 54.

    Case 148/13, Case 149/13 and Case 150/13 (joined), A, B and C v Staatssecretaris van Veiligheid en Justitie, (ECJ 2 December 2014).

  55. 55.

    Case 473/16, F v Bevándorlási és Állampolgársági Hivatal, (ECJ (Third Chamber) of 25 January 2018).

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    Andreas R. Ziegler

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Ziegler, A.R. (2020). The European Union as a Protector and Promoter of Equality: Discrimination on Grounds of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity. In: Giegerich, T. (eds) The European Union as Protector and Promoter of Equality. European Union and its Neighbours in a Globalized World, vol 1. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-43764-0_15

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