Abstract
This chapter deals with the rebel youth films that stand at the very beginning of the development of a youth and teenager identity and the youth rebellion about to transform West Germany’s social order. This chapter analyzes the discourse about the rebel youth films The Wild One, Blackboard Jungle, Rebel Without a Cause, and Rock Around the Clock. They paradigmatically stand for the genre and together caused a public discourse. Through an aesthetics of physical presence and sensual corporeality, the films develop a new narrative of youth in which actors such as Marlon Brando and James Dean, and Rock ’n Roll created a new space of experience. This chapter is concerned with a mediatized reality, in which fiction and reality can no longer be distinguished. Youth becomes the placeholder for the arrival of modernity in West Germany and is represented by style, appearance, performance, and corporeality. The films mark the birth of youth as a new social identity.
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Notes
- 1.
Kurt Koszyk, for instance, notes that only during the licensing period between 1945 and 1949 did the newspapers with circulation figures above 50,000 copies prevail (80.6%). In 1952 only 12.3% of the newspapers remained with circulation figures above 50,000 (Koszyk 1998, p. 441).
- 2.
A good introduction to the print media landscape in the 1950s is given by Steininger (2002).
- 3.
Schwerbrock, Wolfgang. 1955. “Phänomen Motorrad. Zu dem Film ‘Der Wilde.’” FAZ, May 16.
- 4.
Talmon-Gros, Walter. 1955. “Der Wilde (The Wild One).” Film-Echo, January 22.
- 5.
“Sie gehen um Haaresbreite am Zuchthaus vorbei. ‘Der Wilde’, ein Problemfilm um die ‘Halbstarken.’” 1955. Hamburger Abendblatt, January 15.
- 6.
Sa. 1955. “Der Wilde (The Wild One).” Film-Dienst, January 28; K.H. 1955. “‘Der Wilde.’” Rheinische Post, April 16 and ila. 1955. “Capitol: ‘Der Wilde.’” Mannheimer Morgen, November 2.
- 7.
H.S. 1955. “Der Wilde.” Hamburger Anzeiger, January 15.
- 8.
Talmon-Gros, “Der Wilde”; also Sa.., “Der Wilde.”
- 9.
Sa., “Der Wilde.”
- 10.
K.H., “Der Wilde.”
- 11.
Ibid.
- 12.
B.-B. 1955. “Der Wilde (Wild One),” Der neue Film, February 3.
- 13.
Sa., “Der Wilde.”
- 14.
“Sie gehen um Haaresbreite...”; ila., “Capitol.”
- 15.
“Sie gehen um Haaresbreite....”
- 16.
Sa., “Der Wilde.”
- 17.
Ibid.
- 18.
Hickethier also refers to the importance of crime films, yet Irmbert Schenk (2010) limits the role of the crime film to the end of the 1950s, which is beyond the period under consideration here.
- 19.
The imaginary I refer to is given expression in the anti-communist rationale of the Adenauer era, the figure of thought that helped consolidate a nation state in the post-war era. It integrated conservatives as much as Social Democrats and the Nazis that were tacitly rehabilitated (Creuzberger and Hoffmann 2014, esp. pp. 5–6). It is further given expression by the importance played by the (Catholic) church(es) for social cohesion and moral stability (Großbölting 2013, pp. 21–94), and the role played by the family as incarnation of wholeness, which Adenauer transferred to his own role as chancellor. As chancellor, he became the nation’s fatherly patriarch (Doering-Manteuffel 1991, pp. 16–17).
- 20.
Thien, Willy H. 1955. “Zur Psychologie der Halbstarken: Im Dschungel der Großstadt-Schulen gedeiht die ‘Saat der Gewalt.’” Abendpost (Frankfurt/M.), November 8.
- 21.
Bayer-Berger, E. 1955. “Die Saat der Gewalt (Blackboard Jungle).” Der neue Film, November 24.
- 22.
K., “Zu dem amerikanischen Film....”
- 23.
Mennemeier, Franz Norbert. 1955. “Die Krise der Autorität. Anläßlich des amerikanischen Filmes ‘Die Saat der Gewalt.’” Rheinische Post, November 12.
- 24.
Ibid.
- 25.
Busch, Ulf. 1955. “Dynamit auf der Leinwand.” Bremer Nachrichten, November 5.
- 26.
Mennemeier, “Die Krise....”
- 27.
Ensemblist-identitary logic and the role of legein and teukhein is described in chapter 5, “The Social-Historical Institution: Legein and Teukhein” (Castoriadis 1987, pp. 221–272).
- 28.
Die Andere Zeitung is the only (relatively) influential and explicitly left medium at the time to be found within my material. Not much information can be gathered on the quality and political orientation as well as financial dependencies of the weekly, which is why I have to refer to an article published by SoZ–Sozialistische Zeitung. Christoph Jünke, the article’s author, did a doctorate about Leo Kofler, one of the newspaper’s regular authors. Jünke argues that Die Andere Zeitung began its short journalistic career in 1955 with the aim of providing a platform for the socialist Left in West Germany that was split into a diversity of factions and which was–for the most part–disunited. It was to be a newspaper that encompassed the different left movements and ideologies so as to bring them into a productive dialogue. However, it was only able to retain this plural and independent character for about three or four years before the dominance of the Marxist-communist faction among the Left discredited the non-conformist contributors to such an extent that they withdrew from their involvement in the newspaper and it became more and more streamlined by the ideology of East Germany. This led, eventually, also to a dependence on East German funding and thus to the loss of its original (independent) aspirations (Jünke, Christoph. 2005. “Die etwas andere Zeitung.” SoZ – Sozialistische Zeitung, June: p. 24. Online at Linksnet–Für linke Politik und Wissenschaft. http://www.linksnet.de/de/artikel/19215). Yet, the time under consideration in this chapter falls into the weekly’s years of ideological independence, which is why it proves an interesting addition to the general empirical material.
- 29.
Brandt, Gerhard. 1955. “Die Saat der Gewalt.” Die Andere Zeitung, November 17.
- 30.
K. 1955. “Zu dem amerikanischen Film ‘Die Saat der Gewalt.’” Christ & Welt, December 1. Further, the critic positively cites an educationist who is in favor of an authoritative style of education: “In his book ‘Crisis of Education’ published in 1949, the American educationist Bell has taunted the infantilism of our age, in which parents borrow the models from their children and are only ageing adolescents themselves. They are not children any more, but at the same time incapable of growing up, − while the teachers set out their ambitions not to impart knowledge and standards of judgment, but ‘child-oriented’, ‘true-to-life’ vague ‘orientations’, and they are even proud of their ‘progressiveness’. ‘An improvement cannot occur so long as the character-molding institutions – the family homes, the church and the schools – do not recognize that democratic education is not just about being democratic but also educative.’”
- 31.
Geisler, Günther. 1955. “Die Saat der Gewalt / Im Gloria-Palast.” Berliner Morgenpost, December 3.
- 32.
NN. 1956. “Und wieder behauptet ein Film: Eltern sind schuld! Delphi und Titania-Palast: ‘... denn sie wissen nicht, was sie tun.’” Der Abend (West Berlin), March 31.
- 33.
For example, Mg. 1956.“Rebell ohne Grund. Im Ufa-Palast: ‘... denn sie wissen nicht, was sie tun.’” Kölnische Rundschau, April 28.
- 34.
Merseburger, P.X. 1956. “‘... denn sie wissen nicht, was sie tun...’ Deutsche Erstaufführung in den Regionalichtspielen.” Hannoversche Presse, March 31.
- 35.
K., Barbara. 1956. “Die Saat der Langeweile / Zu dem amerikanischen Film ‘Denn sie wissen nicht, was sie tun.’” Christ & Welt, April 19.
- 36.
Geisler, G. 1956. “‘Denn sie wissen nicht, was sie tun.’” Berliner Morgenpost, April 1. For this critic, the second part of the film is subjected to a “whiny heroization” that fails to keep up the realism presented in the first part of the film, and for this reason diminishes the quality of the film.
- 37.
- 38.
Hodenberg confirms that during the 1950s, mass media was an almost exclusively male domain, characterized by a cross-generational ideal of masculinity that excluded women from the prestigious departments of politics and economics. The few female journalists were responsible for clearly “female” topics, such as family, children and household, and this labor division was not questioned by the female journalists, who conceived of themselves within the prevalent gender framework (von Hodenberg 2006, pp. 236–244).
- 39.
The German film was titled … denn sie wissen nicht, was sie tun (En: … for they don’t know what they do). This sentence in the quotation is certainly to be taken as an allusion to the German title of the film.
- 40.
Lange, Rudolf. 1956. “Jugend ohne Liebe. ‘... denn sie wissen nicht, was sie tun’ in den Regina- und Luna-Lichtspielen.” Hannoversche Allgemeine, March 31.
- 41.
st. 1956. “Außer Rand und Band.” Münchener Merkur, November 13.
- 42.
stp. 1956. “Außer Rand und Band. Der Film um die neue Jazz-Richtung ‘Rock- and Roll.’” Ruhr Nachrichten, October 4.
- 43.
Borg. 1956. “Andere Zeiten, andere Schritte. Zu dem Film ‘Rock around the clock.’” Sonntagsblatt (Hamburg), October 21.
- 44.
Ibid.
- 45.
“Außer Rand un Band (USA).” 1956. Der Spiegel, October 3.
- 46.
Let me point to Susanne Lüdemann’s Metaphern der Gesellschaft (En: Metaphors of Society), in which she analyzes the role played by metaphors for conceptualizing the social, such as the notion of society as an organism or as a contract. The particular form of the metaphor, she claims, envisions society’s mode of being to itself and therefore configures its appearance. Society’s self-image is therefore constituted by the metaphors it uses to describe itself (Lüdemann 2004).
- 47.
Kaiser examines the Halbstarke phenomenon from a criminological perspective and is thus mostly interested in those incidents that became relevant in a legal context. In addition, he investigates the phenomenon independently of the film’s screening. He only counts those instances where more than fifty youth were involved. At the climax of the Halbstarke incidents, from April 1956 to March 1957, he lists eighty-one major incidents with more than fifty participants. More than 25% of them fall in the month of September when the film Rock Around the Clock premiered in Germany (Kaiser 1959, p. 105), which gives reason to believe in a certain causality between the film’s screening and the incidents. Kaiser writes about one case where the press consciously did not write about an incident in agreement with the police, so as to diminish the bandwagon effect that could be witnessed among the youth and which was strengthened by press coverage of such incidents (Kaiser 1959, p. 173). In agreement with the ‘journalism of consensus’ (von Hodenberg 2006, pp. 183–228) which prevailed in the 1950s, the print media perceived its role as supporting the government and its policies, and would subordinate its press coverage to the demands of the state authorities. The concealment of these incidences might certainly have contributed to an appearance of German order and discipline.
- 48.
Niehoff, Karena. 1956. “Blick auf die Leinwand: Halb so wild. Außer Rand und Band.” Tagesspiegel (Berlin), December 5.
- 49.
In the German quotation it says “… ganz außer Rand und Band, geschweige denn außer Rock und Hemd kam niemand.” This is an allusion to the German film title Außer Rand und Band, which means ‘going wild’ in English. I have attempted to maintain the allusion to the film title in this translation.
- 50.
G-z. 1956. “Neu auf der Leinwand: Verwilderter Jazz.” Stuttgarter Zeitung, October 12.
- 51.
JFR. 1956. “Die Kinos wurden zu Tollhäusern. Eine Massenhysterie der Jugendlichen, ausgelöst durch einen neuen Film.” Badische Zeitung (Freiburg), September 15.
- 52.
H.S., “Der Wilde.”
- 53.
K.H., “Der Wilde.”
- 54.
Although in retrospect Marlon Brando appears as the alternative to John Wayne, it is interesting that the public discourse makes no reference to John Wayne and his impersonation of the American way of life. It is crucial to note, however, that John Wayne only became a national legend after winning the Oscar award for his movie True Grit in 1970. In the 1950s he was certainly thought of as a great actor, but not a national hero (Levy 1988, pp. xv–xix, esp. p. xvi). Considering this, the personification of youth culture (Brando) takes antecedence to the personification of the American way of life (Wayne) and intertextual reference within the public discourse cannot be expected here. It would of course be highly interesting to scrutinize the emergence of the American man Wayne in relation to the felt dissolution of white, middle-class hegemony in the USA, in which Brando and the youth culture might have its share, but this question lies beyond the scope of this work.
- 55.
For a short introduction to Baudrillard’s theoretical framework and his style of writing see Schetsche and Vähling (2006, esp. pp. 69–70) which deals explicitly with the notion of the simulacrum and hyperreality.
- 56.
Baudrillard’s description of the simulacrum is rather negative, his examples are mirthless and leave a sense of emptiness. He acknowledges that the simulacrum can be fascinating, yet he does not take pleasure in it. Instead, he conceives this fascination as a challenge (Baudrillard 1994, pp. 83–84). From my standpoint, I refuse to share this bleak version of hyperreal phenomena, because I refuse to accord primordial meaning to “the real.” However, the notion of the simulacrum and hyperreality is of analytical use for this chapter, since it enables conceptualization of the reversal of cause and consequence, origin and representation in the discourse of the rebel youth films.
- 57.
H.H. 1955. “Für England zu wild... Laslo Benedeks Film ‘Der Wilde’ mit Marlon Brando wurde verboten.” FR, February 17.
- 58.
Lange, “Jugend ohne Liebe.”
- 59.
Beck, H.W. 1956. “Filmischer Hektizismus: Die Jugend ist gut, die Eltern sind böse. ‘... denn sie wissen nicht, was sie tun’ in Alter und Capitol.” Mannheimer Morgen, June 30.
- 60.
Ruppert, Martin. 1956. “Mörder aus gutem Hause. Der Film ‘... denn sie wissen nicht, was sie tun.’” FAZ, March 31.
- 61.
Geier, Ellen. 1956. “Neuer Film: ‘... denn sie wissen nicht, was sie tun.’” Abendpost (Frankfurt/M.), April 1.
- 62.
Beck, “Filmischer Hektizismus.”
- 63.
K.H. 1956. “Vier Filme für jeden Geschmack.” Welt, May 16.
- 64.
Geier, “Neuer Film.”
- 65.
Ruppert, “Mörder aus gutem Hause.”
- 66.
Groll, Gunter. 1956. “Viel Krampf um Nichts. Außer Rand und Band.” SZ, November 11.
- 67.
Niehoff, “Blick auf die Leinwand.”
- 68.
In the German original it says “entartet” (degenerate). This is a term which Hitler and the Nazis used to classify “non-German,” or “non-völkisch” art. The term was charged with racial theory. The argument was that “degenerate art” was made by “degenerate people.” Most modern and avant-garde art was considered “Jewish-Bolshevist” art and was therefore banned from public space, at times even destroyed (Eitz and Stötzel 2007, s.v. “Entartete Kunst,” pp. 186–196).
- 69.
L.G. 1956. “Auf den Funken wartend. In zwei Theatern: ‘Außer Rand und Band.’” Kölnische Rundschau, October 13.
- 70.
A fact that does not coincide with a revaluation of Black people, however.
- 71.
G.z., “Neu auf der Leinwand.”
- 72.
E.K-r. 1956. “‘Außer Rand und Band.’ Ekstase auf kaltem Weg erzeugt.” FR, September 22.
- 73.
JFR, “Die Kinos....”
- 74.
G.z., “Neu auf der Leinwand.”
- 75.
sil. 1956. “‘Außer Rand und Band.’” Weser-Kurier (Bremen), November 3.
- 76.
The work undertaken by the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) at Birmingham University has come under heavy attack for its semiotic approach, which leads to an over-valuation of representation and (unpolitical) resistance. The CCCS attributed subcultural status almost exclusively to youth subcultures that are located in the working class and neglects the element of accommodation of consumer culture and conventionality within certain subcultures (see the “Introduction to Part II” and the “Introduction to Part III” by Ken Gelder in The Subcultures Reader (Gelder and Thornton 1997, pp. 83–89 and pp. 145–148)). The insights produced by the CCCS are nonetheless valuable here because I am dealing explicitly with the emergence of those subcultures that are the primary focus of the CCCS agenda.
- 77.
I will subsume all four discourses displayed in this chapter into a single discourse of the rebel youth films, since the origination of a genre means just that: the emergence of a single–yet in the best of cases, differentiated–discourse about the relation of fiction and social reality.
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Knapp, M. (2020). The Social Visibility of Corporeality: The Rebel Youth Films in the Fifties. In: Cultural Controversies in the West German Public Sphere. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-40086-6_6
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