Abstract
This chapter introduces readers to A Genealogy of Appetite in the Sexual Sciences, which examines key “moments” in the pathologisation of sexuality, and demonstrates how medical techniques assumed critical roles in shaping modern understandings of the problem of appetite. It examines how techniques of the patient case history, elixirs and devices, measurement, diagnostic manuals and pharmaceuticals were central to the medicalisation of sexual appetite. Histories of sexuality have predominantly focused on the emergence of sexual identities and categories of desire. They have marginalised questions of excess and lack, the appearance of a libido that dwindles or intensifies, which became a pathological object in Europe by the nineteenth century. Through a genealogical method that draws on the writings of Michel Foucault, the chapter highlights the pronounced focus on questions of object choice in histories of sexuality while delineating an approach to the history of sexual appetite in psychiatric discourse.
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Notes
- 1.
Didier Eribon, “Michel Foucault’s Histories of Sexuality,” GLQ: A Journal of Gay and Lesbian Studies 7, no. 1 (2001): 43. See also Kevin Floyd, “Rethinking Reification: Marcuse, Psychoanalysis, and Gay Liberation,” Social Text 19, no. 1 (2001): 103–126.
- 2.
Michel Foucault, The Will to Knowledge: The History of Sexuality, Volume 1, trans. Robert Hurley (London: Penguin, 1978), 57.
- 3.
Ibid.
- 4.
Ibid.
- 5.
See, for example, Jan Bremmer, ed., From Sappho to De Sade: Moments in the History of Sexuality (London: Routledge, 1991), Chiara Beccalossi, Female Sexual Inversion: Same-Sex Desires in Italian and British Sexology, c. 1870–1920 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), and Patricia Caplan, ed., The Cultural Construction of Sexuality (New York: Routledge, 1987).
- 6.
For example, Mark Johnson, “Sexuality” in Cultural Geography: A Critical Dictionary of Key Concepts, eds. David Atkinson, Peter Jackson, David Sibley and Neil Washbourne (London: I.B. Tauris, 2005), 122–127, and Leon Antonio Rocha, “Scientia Sexualis Versus Ars Erotica: Foucault, van Gulik, Needham,” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 42 (2011): 328–343.
- 7.
See the chapters by Valerie Traub and Dina Al-Kassim in Islamicate Sexualities: Translations across Temporal Geographies of Desire, eds. Kathryn Babayan and Afsaneh Najmabadi (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 1–40 and 297–340 and Gregory M. Pflugfelder, Cartographies of Desire: Male-Male Sexuality in Japanese Discourse, 1600–1950 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), and Jonathan Burton, “Western Encounters with Sex and Bodies in Non-European Cultures, 1500–1700” in The Routledge History of Sex and the Body: 1500 to Present, eds. Sarah Toulalan and Kate Fisher (London and New York: Routledge, 2013), 495–510.
- 8.
Romana Byrne, Aesthetic Sexuality: A Literary History of Sadomasochism (New York: Bloomsbury, 2013).
- 9.
Foucault, The Will to Knowledge, 70–71.
- 10.
Problematisation is “the set of discursive and nondiscursive practices that makes something enter into the play of the true and false, and constitutes it as an object for thought.” Michel Foucault, “The Concern for Truth,” in Foucault Live (Interviews, 1961–1984), ed. Sylvère Lotringer, trans. Lysa Hochroth and John Johnston (New York: Semiotext(e), 1996), 456–457. See also Michel Foucault, “Polemics, Politics, and Problematizations: An Interview with Michel Foucault” in Ethics: Essential Works of Foucault 1954–1984, Volume 1, ed. Paul Rabinow (London: Penguin Books, 1997), 114.
- 11.
Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972–1977 (New York: Vintage Books, 1980 [1976]), 191.
- 12.
Michel Foucault, “The Gay Science,” Critical Inquiry 37 (2011 [1978]): 387. In an interview in 1984, Foucault also notes, “for centuries people generally, as well as doctors, psychiatrists, and even liberation movements, have always spoken about desire, and never about pleasure. ‘We have to liberate our desire,’ they say. No! We have to create new pleasure. And then maybe desire will follow.” Michel Foucault “Sex, Power, and the Politics of Identity” in Ethics: Essential Works of Foucault 1954–1984, Volume 1, ed. Paul Rabinow (London: Penguin Books, 1997), 166 (emphasis original).
- 13.
Michel Foucault, The Use of Pleasure: The History of Sexuality, Volume 2, trans. Robert Hurley (New York: Vintage, 1985 [1984]), 97–98.
- 14.
Ibid., 32. See further Timothy O’Leary, Foucault and the Art of Ethics (London and New York: Continuum, 2002), 43.
- 15.
Ibid., 6.
- 16.
Foucault , The Use of Pleasure , 32. Foucault suggests that aphrodisia referred to complex dynamics of acts, pleasure and desire. While irreducible to sexuality, the problematisation of aphrodisia was conceptualised in terms of quantity and occasion. It was connected to its uses (chrēsis), and this conditioned its emergence as a problem, where seasons, time and situation became crucial factors in advice on when to engage in intimate relations. Acts were not forbidden because they were deemed abnormal; they were problematised because of their intensity, context and quantity.
- 17.
Foucault, The Use of Pleasure, 114–115.
- 18.
Ibid., 115. Lesley Dean-Jones also writes that gnothi seauton (“know yourself”) and meden agan (“nothing to excess”) were considered central to Ancient Greek thought. See Lesley Dean-Jones, “The Politics of Pleasure: Female Sexual Appetite in the Hippocratic Corpus” in Discourses of Sexuality: From Aristotle to AIDS, ed. Domna C. Stanton (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992), 50.
- 19.
See Dean-Jones, “The Politics of Pleasure.”
- 20.
Jennifer Germon, Gender: A Genealogy of an Idea (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 14.
- 21.
Jeffrey Weeks, What is Sexual History? (Cambridge: Polity, 2016), 78 (emphasis original).
- 22.
See chapter one in Stephen Garton, Histories of Sexuality: Antiquity to Sexual Revolution (London: Routledge, 2004).
- 23.
William Simon and John H. Gagnon, “Homosexuality: The Formulation of a Sociological Perspective,” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 8, no. 3 (1967): 177.
- 24.
John H. Gagnon and William Simon, Sexual Conduct: The Social Sources of Human Sexuality (New Brunswick: Aldine Transaction, 2005 [1973]).
- 25.
See Sigmund Freud, The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume VII, trans. James Strachey (London: Vintage Books, 2001 [1905]).
- 26.
Mary McIntosh, “The Homosexual Role,” Social Problems 16, no. 2 (1968): 184.
- 27.
It should be noted that McIntosh, in contrast to Foucault, does not locate the emergence of homosexuality in medical discourse.
- 28.
See, for example, Jeffrey Weeks, Coming Out: Homosexual Politics from the Nineteenth Century to the Present (London: Quartet Books, 1977), Dennis Altman, Homosexual: Oppression and Liberation (New York: New York University Press, 1993 [1971]), John D’Emilio, Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States, 1940–1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), and Vern L. Bullough, ed., Before Stonewall: Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Historical Context (New York: Routledge, 2008). Marc Stein notes that transgender rights were also incorporated into the movement, although some groups did not consider themselves connected to the gay and lesbian rights coalition. Marc Stein, Rethinking the Gay and Lesbian Movement (Cambridge: Routledge, 2012), 152.
- 29.
See Ronald Bayer, Homosexuality and American Psychiatry: The Politics of Diagnosis (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987 [1981]) and Jack Drescher and Joseph P. Merlino, eds., American Psychiatry and Homosexuality: An Oral History (New York: Harrington Park Press, 2007).
- 30.
See by Ken Plummer, “Awareness of Homosexuality,” in Contemporary Social Problems in Britain, eds. Roy Bailey and Jock Young (Hants and Massachusetts: Saxon Books and Lexington Books, 1973), 103–125 and Sexual Stigma: An Interactionist Account (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975).
- 31.
Michel Foucault, “Nietzsche, Genealogy, History” in Language, Counter-Memory, Practice: Selected Essays and Interviews by Michel Foucault, ed. Donald F. Bouchard (New York: Cornell University Press, 1977), 153–154.
- 32.
Lisa Downing, The Cambridge Introduction to Michel Foucault (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 14.
- 33.
Foucault, Power/Knowledge, 93.
- 34.
Downing, The Cambridge Introduction to Michel Foucault, 15.
- 35.
See Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (Middlesex: Penguin, 1991 [1977]), 31. On the history of the present, see Jan Goldstein, ed., Foucault and the Writing of History (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994).
- 36.
See Luce Irigaray, Ce sexe qui n’en est pas un (Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1977), Adrienne Rich, “Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence,” in The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader, eds. Henry Abelove, Michèle Aina Barale and David M. Halperin (New York: Routledge, 1993 [1980]), 227–254, Sylvère Lotringer, Overexposed: Perverting Perversions (New York: Semiotext(e), 1988), François Peraldi, ed., Polysexuality (New York: Semiotext(e), 1981), and Monique Wittig, The Straight Mind and Other Essays (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992).
- 37.
See Steven Epstein, “Gay Politics, Ethnic Identity: The Limits of Social Constructionism,” Socialist Review 93/94 (1987): 9–54.
- 38.
David Halperin, One Hundred Years of Homosexuality and Other Essays on Greek Love (New York: Routledge, 1990), 45.
- 39.
See, for example, Jonathan Ned Katz, The Invention of Heterosexuality (New York: Dutton, 1995).
- 40.
See Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Epistemology of the Closet (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990), Teresa De Lauretis, Queer Theory: Lesbian and Gay Sexualities (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991), Michael Warner, ed., Fear of a Queer Planet: Queer Politics and Social Theory (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993), Brett Beemyn and Mickey Eliason, eds., Queer Studies: a Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Anthology (New York: New York University Press, 1996), Steven Seidman, ed., Queer Theory/Sociology (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1996), Elizabeth Weed and Naomi Schor, eds., Feminism Meets Queer Theory (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), Fabio Cleto, ed., Camp: Queer Aesthetics and the Performing of the Subject, A Reader (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999), and José Esteban Muñoz, Disidentifications: Queers of Color and the Performance of Politics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999).
- 41.
See Douglas Crimp, “Right On, Girlfriend!” in Fear of a Queer Planet: Queer Politics and Social Theory, ed. Michael Warner (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993), 300–320 and Steven Maynard, “‘Respect Your Elders, Know Your Past’: History and the Queer Theorists,” Radical History Review 75 (1999): 56–78.
- 42.
Michael Warner, “Introduction,” in Fear of a Queer Planet: Queer Politics and Social Theory, ed. Michael Warner (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993), xxvi.
- 43.
Annamarie Jagose, Queer Theory (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1996), 98.
- 44.
See Butler, Gender Trouble.
- 45.
Susan McCabe, “To Be and to Have: The Rise of Queer Historicism” (Book review), GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian & Gay Studies 11, no. 1 (2005): 121. See also Valerie Traub, “The New Unhistoricism in Queer Studies,” PMLA 128, no. 1 (2013): 21–37.
- 46.
See William B. Turner, A Genealogy of Queer Theory (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2000), Carla Freccero, Queer/Early/Modern (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006), and Lynne Huffer, Mad for Foucault: Rethinking the Foundations of Queer Theory (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010).
- 47.
While a number of genealogies of sexuality have shown how identity formation emerges in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries amid the pathologisation of sexuality as both excessive and lacking, in relying on (often binary) paradigms of identity, they have neglected other axes of analysis such as the problematisation of appetite in itself. See, for example, Steven Angelides, A History of Bisexuality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), Kathryn R. Kent, Making Girls into Women: American Women’s Writing and the Rise of Lesbian Identity (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003) and Chiara Beccalossi, Female Sexual Inversion: Same-Sex Desires in Italian and British Sexology, c. 1870–1920 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012).
- 48.
Peter Cryle and Alison Moore, Frigidity: An Intellectual History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011). Much has been written on the history of hysteria, see, for example, Cristina Mazzoni, Saint Hysteria: Neurosis, Mysticism, and Gender in European Culture (New York: Cornell University Press, 1996) and Georges Didi-Huberman, Invention of Hysteria: Charcot and the Photographic Iconography of the Salpêtrière, trans. Alisa Hartz (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003).
- 49.
Angus McLaren, Impotence: A Cultural History (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2007).
- 50.
Ibid., 126–148.
- 51.
Carol Groneman, “Nymphomania: The Historical Construction of Female Sexuality,” Signs 19, no. 2 (1994): 345. On the history of satyriasis, see Timothy Verhoeven, “Pathologizing Male Desire: Satyriasis, Masculinity, and Modern Civilization at the Fin de Siècle,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 24, no. 1 (2015): 25–45.
- 52.
M D T de Bienville, La nymphomanie, ou traité de la fureur utérine (Paris: Office de Librairie, 1886 [1771]), 352.
- 53.
Replicating the humoral model of the human body into the eighteenth century, the disease of heat for women was known as “uterine fury ,” evoking the idea of a combustible, unruly uterus. Excessive appetite served as an organising element of sexual aberrations and was considered the “ultimate” form of depravity. In La folie érotique (1888), for example, Benjamin Ball attempted to classify ailments of sexual excess in men and women. The table lists “Erotic Madness” as the overarching category, with “erotomania,” “sexual excitement” and “sexual perversions” as subcategories. Under “sexual excitation,” he listed nymphomania and satyriasis, and under “sexual perversion,” he included necrophiliacs, pederasts and inverts. Benjamin Ball, La folie érotique (Paris: J B Ballière, 1888), 9 (translation author).
- 54.
Groneman, “Nymphomania,” 359.
- 55.
Barry Reay, Nina Attwood and Claire Gooder, Sex Addiction: A Critical History (Cambridge: Polity, 2015), 20.
- 56.
Foucault, The Use of Pleasure, 62.
- 57.
Marcel Mauss, “Techniques of the Body,” Economy & Society 2, no. 1 (1973): 77.
- 58.
Nikolas Rose, Inventing Our Selves: Psychology, Power and Personhood (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 85.
- 59.
Ibid., 86 (emphases original).
- 60.
“Apparatus ” is the English translation of the term dispositif used in Foucault’s works. In The Will to Knowledge , he connects apparatus to the deployment of sexuality (106).
- 61.
Michel Foucault, “Le jeu de Michel Foucault,” in Michel Foucault: Dits et écrits, 1954–1988, tome III 1976–1979 (Paris: Gallimard, 1994 [1977]), 300.
- 62.
Foucault, Power/Knowledge, 94–96.
- 63.
See Gert Hekma, “A History of Sexology: Social and Historical Aspects of Sexuality,” in From Sappho to De Sade: Moments in the History of Sexuality, ed. Jan N. Bremmer (London: Routledge, 1991), 173–193 and Arnold I. Davidson, The Emergence of Sexuality: Historical Epistemology and the Formation of Concepts (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001).
- 64.
See, for example, Roy Porter “The Literature of Sexual Advice before 1800,” in Sexual Knowledge, Sexual Science, eds. Roy Porter and Mikuláš Teich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 134–157, and Roy Porter, A Social History of Madness (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1987).
- 65.
The historian Gert Hekma explains that after the Second World War, “the United States became the centre of sexology, and with the research of the biologist Alfred Kinsey, it acquired a sociological character.” Hekma, “A History of Sexology,” 186. From Chap. 4, this book will only be focusing on the United States due to the breadth and depth of sexological research conducted by the team led by Kinsey, and the ground-breaking work of Masters and Johnson, which were foundational to twentieth-century psychiatric understandings of sexual appetite. However, it is important to note the research conducted in other countries that left a lasting imprint on psychiatry and sexology. For example, see Germon, Gender: A Genealogy of an Idea on the work of New Zealand-born John Money.
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Flore, J. (2020). A Cartography of Appetites. In: A Genealogy of Appetite in the Sexual Sciences. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39423-3_1
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