Abstract
This chapter examines the role played by Italian economists in Parliament and as members of the government during fascism, a period in which the relationship between the legislative and the executive changed substantially. On the one hand, the regime acted to shift the balance of power from the legislative to the executive, led by a charismatic duce. On the other hand, the elections were transformed into a plebiscite in which voters were called upon to approve a single list drawn up by the regime until, in 1939, the lower Chamber itself was transformed into a “Chamber of Fasces and Corporations”. Also, the Senate, which traditionally included members of the political, judiciary and academic élite appointed by royal decree, was increasingly “fascistised”. In this framework, a limited group of economists performed a significant and, until recently, largely neglected activity as builders of the “new” fascist state but also, in a few cases, as bearers of insightful and “dialectical” views, to the extent that these could be expressed. Anti-fascist economists in the Lower House (Antonio Graziadei; Arturo Labriola; Angelo Mauri) were stripped of office already in 1926, while Agostino Lanzillo, Gaetano Zingali, Gino Arias, Luigi Lojacono, Vincenzo Ricchioni, Attilio da Empoli and Zeno Vignati were to various degrees supporters of the regime. Some fascist economists became members of the cabinet during the “Ventennio”, among whom Alberto De’ Stefani, Giacomo Acerbo, Arrigo Serpieri and Giuseppe Tassinari are the leading figures. The majority of the legislators and policymakers selected by the regime were applied economists and acted primarily as field experts, providing a relevant contribution to the building of the fascist state. The presence of “pure” ideologists and/or theorists of corporatism is also significant but, nevertheless, circumscribed and of less practical impact. This does not mean that the economists analysed in this chapter limited themselves to provide “technical” advice. Most of them were strongly committed to fascist ideology, albeit often advocating different policies. Mussolini, in any case, did not hesitate to put them aside whenever his strategic priorities changed.
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Notes
- 1.
- 2.
The main objectives of fascism from a constitutional point of view were, observes Fimiani (2001), “the destruction of the pluralistic parliamentary system in its various articulations” and the establishment of the “absolute supremacy of the executive” (p. 95). On this point, it should be remembered that anti-parliamentarism was a widespread attitude in the nationalist literature since the beginning of the twentieth century.
- 3.
Giacomo Acerbo, the deputy who drafted this law, was at the time under-secretary to the presidency of the council of ministries and therefore a key advisor to Mussolini. Cf. infra, note 19.
- 4.
This obligation did not apply to the incumbent senators: Achille Loria and Luigi Einaudi, for example, never joined the Fascist Party.
- 5.
In several cases the ministries recognised openly that the topics raised during the debate were indeed relevant and promised to take note of them. Particularly in the Senate the discussion became sometimes frank and direct. See in this regard a lively exchange of views between the senator Ugo Ancona and the minister of finance, Paolo Thaon di Revel, during the discussion of the budget of the same ministry, in May 1935. Ancona: “The official total of public debts amounts to 105 billion. Now, in reality, the overall figure is much higher”; Thaon: “It is not true Senator Ancona. I have provided precise data to the Chamber”; Ancona. “Pardon, Honourable Minister. I have this habit, good or bad, of scrutinizing the relevant documents. Now if we sum up all the debts of the State, we reach at least 160 billion”; Thaon: “This is the estimate made by Salvemini abroad”; Ancona: “No, Minister, this is the estimate made by the Financial Times, which reaches 160 billion and I believe that the figure is correct”; Thaon: “I rule out that the Financial Times can be better informed than the Italian Minister of Finance” (A.P., Senate, 28 May 1935, 1327). Gaetano Salvemini, former professor of history at the University of Florence, was a leading anti-fascist in exile, very critical of Mussolini’s regime. Cf. Salvemini (1936).
- 6.
Cf. this passage, drawn from an article attributed to Einaudi, published on The Economist, 13 July, 1929, p. 70: “Budgets for the financial year from July 1, 1929, to June 30, 1930, have been unanimously approved by the Corporative Chamber of Deputies and by an overwhelming majority of the Senate. Notwithstanding, Parliament has not spared criticism of increases of expenditure and methods of accounting. The reports by deputy Mazzini to the Chamber and by senator Mayer to the Senate, on behalf of their respective Budget committees, are very interesting and it cannot be said that the two committees are less outspoken in their criticism than in the pre-war years” (Rpt. in Marchionatti 2000, 475–476).
- 7.
- 8.
Arrigo Serpieri, after being part of this Chamber from 1924 till 1939, on that year was appointed member of the Senate.
- 9.
De’ Stefani (Verona, 1879−Roma, 1969) taught political economy at the Universities of Ferrara, Padua and Venice. In October 1925, he became dean of the newly founded faculty of political science at the University of Rome. His writings include several essays on monetary theory, history of thought and demography. From 1926 till the end of the Thirties he was also the leading commentator on economic and financial matters for the Corriere della Sera, one of the most influential newspapers in Italy. Cf. Marcoaldi (1986, 1991).
- 10.
Parliamentary Papers (hence A.P.), Chamber of deputies (hence Chamber), 25 November 1922, 8654–8656.
- 11.
A.P., Chamber, 30 May 1923, 9508–9511; Senate, 8 December 1923, 5744–5753.
- 12.
A.P., Chamber, 2 June 1925, 4116–4122.
- 13.
Arrigo Serpieri (Bologna, 1877–Florence, 1960) taught agricultural economics at the Universities of Perugia, Milan and Florence. In 1925 he founded the National Institute of Agricultural Economics in Florence, which he presided until the Second World War and in 1926 was appointed president of the “Accademia dei Georgofili”. In 1939 became member of the Senate. After the fall of fascism Serpieri was temporarily deprived of his professorship at the University. His academic writings focus on forestry, land reclamation and on the evolution of Italian agriculture. Cf. among others: Serpieri (1930, 1935, 1957). On Serpieri’s life and work cf. Dini (2010), Misiani (2018). For an overview of academic research on agricultural economics in interwar Italy cf. Zaganella (2015).
- 14.
This happened in the framework of a significant organisational change inside the executive: the ministry of national economy, which had been deprived of most non-agricultural competences in favour of the ministry of corporations, was renamed as ministry of agriculture and forestry and entrusted, as we will see later, to Giacomo Acerbo.
- 15.
“Testo unico sulla bonifica integrale”, 13 February 1933, no. 215.
- 16.
In his opinion, however, this measure was justified in the case of owners who were “stubbornly failing to fulfil the duties that the fascist State attributes to property as a social function” (Serpieri 1933, 80).
- 17.
In a speech held at the Senate in 1933 Francesco Rota, a landowner and silk entrepreneur of northeast Italy, openly criticised Serpieri’s approach: “Fascism guarantees the right of ownership that is, despite all the declining bolshevism, the cornerstone of our civilization. These doctrinal statements of large, indeterminate expropriations are dangerous” (A.P., Senate, 21 March 1933, 5933).
- 18.
In the previous years the ministry of national economy had been deprived of most of its non-agricultural competences in favour of the ministry of corporations and was therefore suppressed.
- 19.
Giacomo Acerbo (Loreto Aprutino, 1888–Rome, 1969) graduated in agronomy at the University of Pisa in 1912. In the post-war period he started an academic career as assistant professor in political economy at the University of Rome and at the same time took part to political activity as an active member of the Fascist Party. Elected at the Chamber of deputies in 1921, he became a close collaborator of Mussolini. In the meantime he carried on academic work in agricultural economics and in 1928 became professor on that discipline at the “High School of Commerce”, later faculty of economics, University of Rome. Minister of agriculture and forestry till January 1935, on that year was appointed president of the International Institute of Agriculture in Rome. Member of the “Great Council of Fascism”, in July 1943 voted against Mussolini. Cf. Parisella (1988).
- 20.
A.P., Senate, 9 April 1930, 2346–2349.
- 21.
Complains focused on the collapse of the prices of the main agricultural goods but also on the high tax burden and the high interest rates on the loans to farmers. Cf. A.P., Chamber, 21 February 1933, 7672–7705; A.P., Senate, 21 March 1933, 5926–5952.
- 22.
A.P., Chamber, 24 February 1933, 7804–7818; A.P., Senate, 24 March 1933, 6001–6016.
- 23.
A.P., Chamber, 24 February 1933, 7805.
- 24.
Ibidem, 7813–7816.
- 25.
A.P., Senate, 24 March 1933, 6013–6015.
- 26.
A.P., Chamber, 12 December 1934, 494–507.
- 27.
For a tranchant judgement of Rossoni’s work at the ministry cf. the Diaries of Giuseppe Tassinari, at that time under-secretary of agriculture. In this text, recently published, Tassinari judged Rossoni “an incompetent and slacker minister, concerned exclusively with his own interests” (Tassinari 2019, 68).
- 28.
Giuseppe Tassinari (Perugia, 1891−Salò, 1944) taught agricultural economics at the Universities of Perugia and Bologna, where he became full professor in 1926, and forestry at the National Institute of Agricultural Economics in Florence, presided by Serpieri. From 1929 till 1939 was member of the Chamber of deputies and then, from 1939, of the “Chamber of Fasces and Corporations”. After September 1943, albeit critical of the fascist ruling élite, which he judged to be corrupt and incompetent, he adhered to the “Repubblica Sociale Italiana”, the puppet State created by Mussolini with the help of the nazi regime and died in Salò in 1944 during an aerial attack (cf. Zaganella 2010). In his academic writings Tassinari focused on the structural problems of the Italian agriculture, on the distribution of income among Italian farmers and on corporatism (Tassinari 1931, 1933, 1937).
- 29.
A.P., Chamber, 11 March 1925, 2439–2445.
- 30.
Agostino Lanzillo (Reggio Calabria, 1886−Milano, 1952) taught as assistant professor at the University “Bocconi” of Milan and at the University of Rome; in 1923 got the chair of political economy at the University of Cagliari. From 1934 was professor in the same discipline at University “Ca’ Foscari”, Venice. In his original and controversial writings (Lanzillo 1918, 1936, 1937) he focused on the crisis of liberalism and socialism and analysed the perspectives of capitalism after the Great Depression.
- 31.
A.P., Chamber, 10 March 1925, 2392–2396.
- 32.
Ibidem, 2395.
- 33.
A.P., Chamber, 5 December 1925, 4849–4855.
- 34.
Gino Arias was born in Florence in 1879 by a Jewish family. A prolific writer, he published between 1901 and 1906 several essays and monographs on the history of mediaeval economic and social institutions (cf. Arias 1901, 1905). In the following years he focused on the analysis of economic institutions and phenomena in an historical perspective and in 1909 he got a chair of political economy at the University of Genoa, where he taught till 1924, when he moved to the University of Florence. During the 1920s, Arias adhered to fascism and wrote several essays on the theoretical foundations of corporatism (Arias 1930) and on the “Labour Charter”, a key corporatist document elaborated in 1926 by Giuseppe Bottai. In 1936 he moved to the University of Rome to become professor of political economy at the faculty of law. On October 1938, after the enforcement by the regime of the racist laws against the Jews, he was forced to emigrate to Argentina, where he died shortly after his arrival, in the 1940. Cf. Ottonelli (2012).
- 35.
A.P., Chamber, 28 March 1935, 1207–1212.
- 36.
In his speech Arias mentioned the need to tackle the organisation of new “corporate firms”. To this point another deputy, Nazzareno Mezzetti, interrupted him: “a corporate firm? Could you explain what does it mean? Please, tell us” (A.P., 28 March 1935, 1209). Also an observation by Arias that the newly founded high schools aimed at forming the cadres of the fascist unions did not attract enough participants among workers’ representatives, was met with irony by the floor: “This is because the trade unionists have a better preparation than the teachers”, a deputy observed (Ibidem, 1935).
- 37.
A.P., Chamber, 26 March 1936, 2521–2526.
- 38.
Ibidem, 2521.
- 39.
In the same speech Arias denied that the national economic independence, advocated by Mussolini, could coincide with isolation: on the contrary, he maintained, international trade should continue to perform a crucial function (Ibidem, 2523).
- 40.
- 41.
A.P., Chamber, 5 December 1929, 1387–1389.
- 42.
Ibidem, 1389–1391.
- 43.
In December 1930 Zingali gave his support to a measure enacted by the government with the aim of reducing nominal wages of civil servants, arguing optimistically that this cut was more than compensated by a decrease of the prices of the goods consumed by the workers and by a reduction of rents decided by the government. A.P., Chamber, 11 December, 1930, 3656–3662.
- 44.
A.P., Chamber, 10 May 1932, 7034–7041. After the Second World War Zingali, in a compelling example of political opportunism, became a member of the liberal party and run for election to the democratic Parliament, this time unsuccessfully.
- 45.
Attilio Da Empoli (Reggio Calabria, 1904−Napoli, 1948) was author of innovative essays in public finance. From 1929 till 1931, he completed his intellectual formation at the London School of Economics and then at the Universities of Columbia, Berkeley and Chicago. In 1936 he got a chair in public economics at the University of Bari; then taught at the Universities of Messina and Neaples. A committed nationalist and fascist, in 1935 he volunteered in the war in Ethiopia and, in 1941, in the campaign of Greece. In 1943, however, he distanced himself from fascism and in 1944 he enlisted in the reconstituted Italian army that fought alongside the Anglo-Americans. Cf. Faucci (1985), Fusco (2012).
- 46.
A.P., Chamber, 6 March 1935, 856–859.
- 47.
A.P., Chamber, 10 May 1935, 7034–7055.
- 48.
A.P., Chamber, 15 December 1936, 3111–3114.
- 49.
A.P., Chamber, 16 May 1938, 4963.
- 50.
Ibidem.
- 51.
Achille Loria was born in Mantua to a Jewish family in 1857. After graduating in law at the University of Bologna, he continued his studies in Pavia, Berlin and London. In 1881 became professor political economy at the University of Siena and then moved to the Universities of Padua (1891) and Turin (1902), where he taught until his retirement in 1932. He died in November 1943 at Luserna San Giovanni, a mountain village not far from Turin. A prolific writer, Loria was acclaimed as an outstanding thinker during the 1880s and 1890s to be later subjected to harsh criticism by such authors as Benedetto Croce and Antonio Gramsci. Some of his works were translated in English and French and exerted a significant influence abroad (cf., among others, Loria 1886). He was Italian correspondent of the Royal Economic Society and honorary fellow of the American Economic Association. Cf. Benson (1950), Faucci and Perri (2003).
- 52.
A.P., Senate, 13 March 1930, 1932.
- 53.
Ibidem, 1935–1936. This statement caused an abrupt comment by Mussolini, who attended the session: “We never ruled out these [contrasts]”, he told the Senators, briefly interrupting Loria.
- 54.
A.P., Senate, 28 May 1935, 1317–1321.
- 55.
Senate archives, Letter of Achille Loria to the President of the Senate, 31 October 1938.
- 56.
Pietro Sitta (Ferrara, 1866−Ivi, 1947) graduated at the High School of Commerce “Ca’ Foscari” of Venice. In 1902 became full professor of political economy at the University of Ferrara where he taught until retirement and where he held the position of rector for several years. He wrote several essays and monographs on agricultural economics (cf. Sitta 1895, 1933). He was member of the National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT) and corresponding member of “Accademia dei Georgofili”. Cf. Morselli (1948).
- 57.
A.P., Senate, 26 May 1930, 2598–2602.
- 58.
Law 29 July 1928, no. 2085.
- 59.
A.P., Senate, 25 March 1931, 3523.
- 60.
Ibidem, 3523–3525.
- 61.
Federico Flora (Pordenone, 1867−Chiusi, 1958) was professor of public finance at the University of Catania (since 1904) and Bologna, where he taught until 1937. His academic writings include an influential handbook of public finance (Flora 1893) and several essays on public debt management, pauperism, rail transport tariffs and currency policy (Cf. Flora 1896, 1907, 1909, 1930). He was member of the Royal Academy of Science of Bologna and of the “Accademia dei Lincei” of Rome and took part as a delegate of the Italian government in the Dawes committee. Flora was also an active commentator of economic facts and policies on national based newspapers. Cf. Colonna (1987).
- 62.
A.P., Senate, 17 May 1935, 1193–1200.
- 63.
A.P., Senate, 22 December 1936, 2555.
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Pavanelli, G., Bianchi, G. (2020). The Italian Economists as Legislators and Policymakers During the Fascist Regime. In: Augello, M., Guidi, M., Bientinesi, F. (eds) An Institutional History of Italian Economics in the Interwar Period — Volume II. Palgrave Studies in the History of Economic Thought. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38331-2_5
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