Skip to main content

Prescription Drug Abuse: Risks, Diversion, and Prevention

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Textbook of Addiction Treatment
  • 259 Accesses

Abstract

Abuse of and dependence on prescription drugs is an increasing problem and is closely related to the increasing use of prescription drugs worldwide. The problem of prescription drug abuse includes both weak and strong opioids for pain management; sedating drugs like benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and newer hypnotics; and stimulant drugs used for the treatment of narcolepsy and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Several other prescription drugs also have the potential for abuse. This chapter focuses on the epidemiology, the diagnostics, the treatment, and the prevention of prescription drug abuse.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 89.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Agabio R, Sinclair JM, Addolorato G, Aubin HJ, Beraha EM, Caputo F, Chick JD, De La Selle P, Franchitto N, Garbutt JC, Haber PS, Heydtmann M, Jaury P, Lingford-Hughes AR, Morley KC, Muller CA, Owens L, Pastor A, Paterson LM, Pelissier F, Rolland B, Stafford A, Thompson A, Van Den Brink W, De Beaurepaire R, Leggio L. Baclofen for the treatment of alcohol use disorder: the Cagliari statement. Lancet Psychiatry. 2018;5:957–60.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Ahuja T, Mgbako O, Katzman C, Grossman A. Phenibut (beta-phenyl-gamma-aminobutyric acid) dependence and management of withdrawal: emerging nootropics of abuse. Case Rep Psychiatry. 2018;2018:9864285.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Alho H. Opioid agonist diversion in opioid dependence treatment. In: El-Guebaly N, Carrà G, Galanter M, editors. Textbook of addiction treatment: international perspectives. New York: Springer; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Arfken CL, Cicero TJ. Postmarketing surveillance for drug abuse. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003;70:S97–105.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Ator NA. Contributions of GABAA receptor subtype selectivity to abuse liability and dependence potential of pharmacological treatments for anxiety and sleep disorders. CNS Spectr. 2005;10:31–9.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Ator NA, Griffiths RR, Weerts EM. Self-injection of flunitrazepam alone and in the context of methadone maintenance in baboons. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2005;78:113–23.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Bagot KS, Kaminer Y. Efficacy of stimulants for cognitive enhancement in non-attention deficit hyperactivity disorder youth: a systematic review. Addiction. 2014;109:547–57.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Ballantyne JC. Opioid misuse in oncology pain patients. Curr Pain Headache Rep. 2007;11:276–82.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Benotsch EG, Martin AM, Koester S, Mason MJ, Jeffers AJ, Snipes DJ. Driving under the influence of prescription drugs used nonmedically: associations in a young adult sample. Subst Abus. 2015;36:99–105.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Birke H, Kurita GP, Sjogren P, Hojsted J, Simonsen MK, Juel K, Ekholm O. Chronic non-cancer pain and the epidemic prescription of opioids in the Danish population: trends from 2000 to 2013. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2016;60:623–33.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Bloch MH, Panza KE, Landeros-Weisenberger A, Leckman JF. Meta-analysis: treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children with comorbid tic disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009;48:884–93.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Bramness JG, Furu K, Engeland A, Skurtveit S. Carisoprodol use and abuse in Norway. A pharmacoepidemiological study. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2007;64:210–8.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Bramness JG, Morland J, Sorlid HK, Rudberg N, Jacobsen D. Carisoprodol intoxications and serotonergic features. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2005;43:39–45.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Bramness JG, Rossow I. Can the total consumption of a medicinal drug be used as an indicator of excessive use? The case of carisoprodol. Drugs Ed Prev Policy. 2010;17:168–80.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Bramness JG, Sandvik P, Engeland A, Skurtveit S. Does Pregabalin (Lyrica((R)) ) help patients reduce their use of benzodiazepines? A comparison with gabapentin using the Norwegian prescription database. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2010;107:883–6.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Bramness JG, Sexton JA. The basic pharmacoepidemiology of benzodiazepine use in Norway 2004-9. Nor Epidem. 2011;21:35–41.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Brunette MF, Noordsy DL, Xie HG, Drake RE. Benzodiazepine use and abuse among patients with severe mental illness an co-occuraing substance use disorder. Psychiatr Serv. 2003;54:1395–401.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Bukten A, Skurtveit S, Waal H, Clausen T. Factors associated with dropout among patients in opioid maintenance treatment (OMT) and predictors of re-entry. A national registry-based study. Addict Behav. 2014;39:1504–9.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Cai R, Crane E, Poneleit K, Paulozzi L. Emergency department visits involving nonmedical use of selected prescription drugs in the United States, 2004-2008. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother. 2010;24:293–7.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Chiappini S, Schifano F. Is there a potential of misuse for Quetiapine?: Literature review and analysis of the European Medicines Agency/European Medicines Agency Adverse Drug Reactions’ Database. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2018;38:72–9.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Clark DJ, Schumacher MA. America’s opioid epidemic: supply and demand considerations. Anesth Analg. 2017;125:1667–74.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Clark RE, Xie HG, Brunette MF. Benzodiazepine prescription practices and substance abuse in persons with severe mental illness. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;65:151–5.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Clausen T, Anchersen K, Waal H. Mortality prior to, during and after opioid maintenance treatment (OMT): a national prospective cross-registry study. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2008;94:151–7.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Clausen T, Waal H, Thoresen M, Gossop M. Mortality among opiate users: opioid maintenance therapy, age and causes of death. Addiction. 2009;104:1356–62.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Dart RC, Surratt HL, Cicero TJ, Parrino MW, Severtson SG, Bucher-Bartelson B, Green JL. Trends in opioid analgesic abuse and mortality in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2015;372:241–8.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Dayer LE, Painter JT, Mccain K, King J, Cullen J, Foster HR. A recent history of opioid use in the US: three decades of change. Subst Use Misuse. 2019;54:331–9.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Deluca P, Davey Z, Corazza O, Di Furia L, Farre M, Flesland LH, Mannonen M, Majava A, Peltoniemi T, Pasinetti M, Pezzolesi C, Scherbaum N, Siemann H, Skutle A, Torrens M, Van Der Kreeft P, Iversen E, Schifano F. Identifying emerging trends in recreational drug use; outcomes from the Psychonaut Web Mapping Project. Prog Neuro-Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2012;39:221–6.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Denis C, Fatseas M, Lavie E, Auriacombe M. Pharmacological interventions for benzodiazepine mono-dependence management in outpatient settings. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;(3):CD005194.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Evoy KE, Morrison MD, Saklad SR. Abuse and misuse of Pregabalin and gabapentin. Drugs. 2017;77:403–26.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Fatseas M, Auriacombe M. Why buprenorphine is so successful in treating opiate addiction in France. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2007;9:358–64.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. FDA. Guidance for industry assessment of abuse potential of drugs. Rockville: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Fischer B, Vojtila L, Rehm J. The ‘fentanyl epidemic’ in Canada – some cautionary observations focusing on opioid-related mortality. Prev Med. 2018;107:109–13.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Frauger E, Nordmann S, Orleans V, Pradel V, Pauly V, Thirion X, Micallef J. Which psychoactive prescription drugs are illegally obtained and through which ways of acquisition? About OPPIDUM survey. Fundam Clin Pharmacol. 2012;26:549–56.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Frauger E, Pauly V, Thirion X, Natali F, Pradel V, Reggio P, Rouby F, Coudert H, Micallef J. Estimation of clonazepam abuse liability: a new method using a reimbursed drug database. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2009;24:318–24.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Gahr M, Freudenmann RW, Hiemke C, Kolle MA, Schonfeldt-Lecuona C. Pregabalin abuse and dependence in Germany: results from a database query. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2013;69:1335–42.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Gaist D, Andersen M, Aarup AL, Hallas J, Gram LF. Use of sumatriptan in Denmark in 1994-5: an epidemiological analysis of nationwide prescription data. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1997;43:429–33.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Gambi F, Conti CM, Grimaldi MR, Giampietro L, De Bernardis B, Ferro FM. Flunitrazepam a benzodiazepine most used among drug abusers. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol. 1999;12:157–9.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Gerhardt AM. Identifying the drug seeker: the advanced practice nurse’s role in managing prescription drug abuse. J Am Acad Nurse Pract. 2004;16:239–43.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Goodwin RD, Hasin DS. Sedative use and misuse in the United States. Addiction. 2002;97:555–62.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Griffiths RR, Johnson MW. Relative abuse liability of hypnotic drugs: a conceptual framework and algorithm for differentiating among compounds. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66(Suppl 9):31–41.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Griffiths RR, Weerts EM. Benzodiazepine self-administration in humans and laboratory animals – implications for problems of long-term use and abuse. Psychopharmacology. 1997;134:1–37.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Groenman AP, Oosterlaan J, Rommelse N, Franke B, Roeyers H, Oades RD, Sergeant JA, Buitelaar JK, Faraone SV. Substance use disorders in adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a 4-year follow-up study. Addiction. 2013;108:1503.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Hajak G, Müller WE, Wittchen HU, Pittrow D, Kirch W. Abuse and dependence potential for the non-benzodiazepine hypnotics zolpidem and zopiclone: a review of case-reports and epidemiological data. Addiction. 2003;98:1371.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Hallas J, Støvring H. Templates for analysis of individual-level prescription data. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2006;98:260–5.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Hallfors DD, Saxe L. The dependence potential of short half-life benzodiazepines: a meta-analysis. Am J Public Health. 1993;83:1300–4.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Helmerhorst GT, Teunis T, Janssen SJ, Ring D. An epidemic of the use, misuse and overdose of opioids and deaths due to overdose, in the United States and Canada: is Europe next? Bone Joint J. 2017;99-B:856–64.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Hoiseth G, Karinen R, Sorlid HK, Bramness JG. The effect of scheduling and withdrawal of carisoprodol on prevalence of intoxications with the drug. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2009;105:345–9.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Isaacson JH. Preventing prescription drug abuse. Cleve Clin J Med. 2000;67:473–5.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Jaffe JH, Bloor R, Crome I, Carr M, Alam F, Simmons A, Meyer RE. A postmarketing study of relative abuse liability of hypnotic sedative drugs. Addiction. 2004;99:165–73.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Jannetto PJ, Helander A, Garg U, Janis GC, Goldberger B, Ketha H. The fentanyl epidemic and evolution of fentanyl analogs in the United States and the European Union. Clin Chem. 2019;65:242–53.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Johnson MW, Griffiths RR. Comparative abuse liability of GHB and ethanol in humans. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2013;21:112–23.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Jones AW, Holmgren A. Amphetamine abuse in Sweden: subject demographics, changes in blood concentrations over time, and the types of coingested substances. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2013;33:248–52.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Jones CM. Heroin use and heroin use risk behaviors among nonmedical users of prescription opioid pain relievers – United States, 2002-2004 and 2008-2010. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013;132:95–100.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Jonsson AK, Holmgren P, Druid H, Ahlner J. Cause of death and drug use pattern in deceased drug addicts in Sweden, 2002-2003. Forensic Sci Int. 2007;169:101–7.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Klein-Schwartz W, Schwartz EK, Anderson BD. Evaluation of quetiapine abuse and misuse reported to poison centers. J Addict Med. 2014;8:195–8.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Lader M. History of benzodiazepine dependence. J Subst Abuse Tr. 1991;8:53–9.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Launonen E, Alho H, Kotovirta E, Wallace I, Simojoki K. Diversion of opioid maintenance treatment medications and predictors for diversion among Finnish maintenance treatment patients. Int J Drug Policy. 2015;26:875–82.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Lobmaier P, Gossop M, Waal H, Bramness J. The pharmacological treatment of opioid addiction--a clinical perspective. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2010;66:537–45.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Longo LP, Johnson B. Addiction: part I. benzodiazepines – side effects, abuse risk and alternatives. Am Fam Physician. 2000;61:2121–8.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Manchikanti L, Helm S, Fellows B, Janata JW, Pampati V, Grider JS, Boswell MV. Opioid epidemic in the United States. Pain Physician. 2012;15:ES9–38.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Mannucci C, Pichini S, Spagnolo EV, Calapai F, Gangemi S, Navarra M, Calapai G. Sodium oxybate therapy for alcohol withdrawal syndrome and keeping of alcohol abstinence. Curr Drug Metab. 2018;19:1056–64.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Marraccini ME. A meta-analysis of prescription stimulant efficacy: are stimulants neurocognitive enhancers? Sci Eng. 2016;76, No Pagination Specified.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Martino AM. In search of a new ethic for treating patients with chronic pain: what can medical boards do? J Law Med Ethics. 1998;26:332–49, 263

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Mccabe SE. Misperceptions of non-medical prescription drug use: a web survey of college students. Addict Behav. 2008;33:713–24.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Mccabe SE, Boyd CJ, Teter CJ. Subtypes of nonmedical prescription drug misuse. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009;102:63–70.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Mcelrath K, Joseph H. Medication-assisted treatment (MAT) for opioid addiction: introduction to the special issue. Subst Use Misuse. 2018;53:177–80.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Mchugh RK, Nielsen S, Weiss RD. Prescription drug abuse: from epidemiology to public policy. J Subst Abus Treat. 2015;48:1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Montebello ME, Brett J. Misuse and associated harms of Quetiapine and other atypical antipsychotics. Curr Top Behav Neurosci. 2017;34:125–39.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Mugunthan K, Mcguire T, Glasziou P. Minimal interventions to decrease long-term use of benzodiazepines in primary care: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Gen Pract. 2011;61:e573–8.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Olsen H, Koppang E, Alvan G, Morland J. Carisoprodol elimination in humans. Ther Drug Monit. 1994;16:337–40.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Parr JM, Kavanagh DJ, Cahill L, Mitchell G, Mc DYR. Effectiveness of current treatment approaches for benzodiazepine discontinuation: a meta-analysis. Addiction. 2009;104:13–24.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Pauly V, Frauger E, Pradel V, Nordmann S, Pourcel L, Natali F, Sciortino V, Lapeyre-Mestre M, Micallef J, Thirion X. Monitoring of benzodiazepine diversion using a multi-indicator approach. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2011;26:268–77.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Pawl R. Prescription narcotic drug abuse: “we have met the enemy and they are ourselves”. Surg Neurol. 2008;69:538–41.

    Google Scholar 

  74. Peirce GL, Smith MJ, Abate MA, Halverson J. Doctor and pharmacy shopping for controlled substances. Med Care. 2012;50:494–500.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Pirog-Balcerzak A, Habrat B, Mierzejewski P. Misuse and abuse of quetiapine. Psychiatr Pol. 2015;49:81–93.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Portenoy RK. Opioid therapy for chronic nonmalignant pain: a review of the critical issues. J Pain Symptom Manag. 1996;11:203–17.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Ragan CI, Bard I, Singh I. What should we do about student use of cognitive enhancers? An analysis of current evidence. Neuropharmacology. 2013;64:588–95.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Reeves RR, Burke RS, Kose S. Carisoprodol: update on abuse potential and legal status. South Med J. 2012;105:619–23.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Reid MJ, Langford KH, Morland J, Thomas KV. Quantitative assessment of time dependent drug-use trends by the analysis of drugs and related metabolites in raw sewage. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011;119:179–86.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Roland CL, Lake J, Oderda GM. Prevalence of prescription opioid misuse/abuse as determined by international classification of diseases codes: a systematic review. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother. 2016;30:258–68.

    Google Scholar 

  81. Rolland B, Labreuche J, Duhamel A, Deheul S, Gautier S, Auffret M, Pignon B, Valin T, Bordet R, Cottencin O. Baclofen for alcohol dependence: relationships between baclofen and alcohol dosing and the occurrence of major sedation. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2015;25:1631–6.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Ross J, Darke S. The nature of benzodiazepine dependence among heroin users in Sydney, Australia. Addiction. 2000;95:1785–93.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Rosvold EO, Vaglum P, Moum T. Use of minor tranquilizers among Norwegian physicians. A nation-wide comparative study. Soc Sci Med. 1998;46:581–90.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Salvatore S, Roislien J, Baz-Lomba JA, Bramness JG. Assessing prescription drug abuse using functional principal component analysis (FPCA) of wastewater data. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2017;26:320–6.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. SAMHSA. Results from the 2008 national survey on drug use and health: national findings. Rockville: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Sassano-Higgins S, Baron D, Juarez G, Esmaili N, Gold M. A review of ketamine abuse and diversion. Depress Anxiety. 2016;33:718–27.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Schifano F, D’offizi S, Piccione M, Corazza O, Deluca P, Davey Z, Di Melchiorre G, Di Furia L, Farre M, Flesland L, Mannonen M, Majava A, Pagani S, Peltoniemi T, Siemann H, Skutle A, Torrens M, Pezzolesi C, Van Der Kreeft P, Scherbaum N. Is there a recreational misuse potential for pregabalin? Analysis of anecdotal online reports in comparison with related gabapentin and clonazepam data. Psychother Psychosom. 2011;80:118–22.

    Google Scholar 

  88. Schjerning O, Rosenzweig M, Pottegard A, Damkier P, Nielsen J. Abuse potential of Pregabalin: a systematic review. CNS Drugs. 2016;30:9–25.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Skog OJ. Total alcohol consumption and rates of excessive use: a rejoinder to Duffy and Cohen. Br J Addict. 1980;75:133–45.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Smith ME, Farah MJ. Are prescription stimulants “smart pills”? The epidemiology and cognitive neuroscience of prescription stimulant use by normal healthy individuals. Psychol Bull. 2011;137:717–41.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Strang J, Groshkova T, Uchtenhagen A, Van Den Brink W, Haasen C, Schechter MT, Lintzeris N, Bell J, Pirona A, Oviedo-Joekes E, Simon R, Metrebian N. Heroin on trial: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials of diamorphine-prescribing as treatment for refractory heroin addictiondagger. Br J Psychiatry. 2015;207:5–14.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Tan KR, Rudolph U, Luscher C. Hooked on benzodiazepines: GABAA receptor subtypes and addiction. Trends Neurosci. 2011;34:188–97.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Turk DC, Swanson KS, Gatchel RJ. Predicting opioid misuse by chronic pain patients: a systematic review and literature synthesis. Clin J Pain. 2008;24:497–508.

    Google Scholar 

  94. UNODC. World drug report 2011. Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  95. Van Amsterdam J, Van Den Brink W. The misuse of prescription opioids: a threat for Europe? Curr Drug Abuse Rev. 2015;8:3–14.

    Google Scholar 

  96. Van Zee A. The promotion and marketing of oxycontin: commercial triumph, public health tragedy. Am J Public Health. 2009;99:221–7.

    Google Scholar 

  97. Voshaar RC, Couvee JE, Van Balkom AJ, Mulder PG, Zitman FG. Strategies for discontinuing long-term benzodiazepine use: meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry. 2006;189:213–20.

    Google Scholar 

  98. Wanzer SH, Federman DD, Adelstein SJ, Cassel CK, Cassem EH, Cranford RE, Hook EW, Lo B, Moertel CG, Safar P, et al. The physician’s responsibility toward hopelessly ill patients. A second look. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:844–9.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Webster LR. Risk factors for opioid-use disorder and overdose. Anesth Analg. 2017;125:1741–8.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Weisberg DF, Becker WC, Fiellin DA, Stannard C. Prescription opioid misuse in the United States and the United Kingdom: cautionary lessons. Int J Drug Policy. 2014;25:1124–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  101. Wilens TE, Spencer TJ, Biederman J. A review of the pharmacotherapy of adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Atten Disord. 2002;5:189–202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  102. Wright N, D’agnone O, Krajci P, Littlewood R, Alho H, Reimer J, Roncero C, Somaini L, Maremmani I. Addressing misuse and diversion of opioid substitution medication: guidance based on systematic evidence review and real-world experience. J Public Health (Oxf). 2016;38:e368–74.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jørgen G. Bramness .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Bramness, J.G. (2021). Prescription Drug Abuse: Risks, Diversion, and Prevention. In: el-Guebaly, N., Carrà, G., Galanter, M., Baldacchino, A.M. (eds) Textbook of Addiction Treatment. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-36391-8_22

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-36391-8_22

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-36390-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-36391-8

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics