Abstract
Although there is ample literature regarding the couple relationships of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) individuals, particularly same-sex LG couples, less is known about processes of separation and divorce in instances where these relationships are not enduring. This topic is timely to consider as a growing number of countries worldwide have moved toward marriage equality for same-sex couples, which also means that legal same-sex divorce is becoming an increasing reality. As many couples including LGBTQ-identified persons have children, it is likely that at least some of these children will experience the dissolution of their parents’ relationship, yet few studies have attended to outcomes and experiences of LGBTQ-parent families who experience divorce. In this chapter, we review data on LGBTQ relationship separation and divorce, particularly those LGBTQ adults who are parents. We underscore dynamics unique to LGBTQ parents and their children who experience dissolution of the couple relationship. In doing so, we describe both quantitative and qualitative studies in this area, and we draw on related research among cisgender heterosexual parent families who have experienced separation and divorce. We conclude with implications and recommendations for policy, practice, and future research.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
- 1.
Although we use “same-sex,” “female and male,” and “lesbian and gay” interchangeably to refer to couples for consistency with terms used in original sources, we acknowledge that individual partners within couples may represent greater diversity (e.g., queer, bisexual, etc.).
- 2.
It is important to note that even with the availability of same-sex marriage, legal parenting rights for same-sex partners may still be called into question by some courts in the USA.
References
Alegría, A. (2010). Relationship challenges and relationship maintenance activities following disclosure of transsexualism. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 17, 909–916. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2850.2010.01624.x
Allen, K. R. (2007). Ambiguous loss after lesbian couples with children break up: A case for same-gender divorce. Family Relations, 56, 175–183. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2007.00450.x
Amato, P. R. (2010). Research on divorce: Continuing trends and recent developments. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, 650–666. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00723.x
Andersson, G., Noack, T., Seierstad, A., & Weedon-Fekjaer, H. (2006). The demographics of same-sex marriages in Norway and Sweden. Demography, 43, 79–98. https://doi.org/10.1353/dem.2006.0001
Balsam, K. F., Beauchaine, T. P., Rothblum, E. D., & Solomon, S. E. (2008). Three-year follow- up of same-sex couples who had civil unions in Vermont, same-sex couples not in civil unions, and heterosexual married couples. Developmental Psychology, 44, 102–116. https://doi.org/10.1037/00121649.44.1.102
Balsam, K. F., Rostosky, S. S., & Riggle, E. D. B. (2017). Breaking up is hard to do: Women’s experience of dissolving their same-sex relationship. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 21, 30–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/10894160.2016.1165561
Balsam, K. F., Rothblum, E. D., & Wickham, R. E. (2017). Longitudinal predictors of relationship dissolution among same-sex and heterosexual couples. Couple and Family Psychology, 6, 247–257. https://doi.org/10.1037/cfp0000091
Biblarz, T. J., & Stacey, J. (2010). How does the gender of parents matter? Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2009.00678.x
Blumstein, P., & Schwartz, P. (1983). American couples: Money, work, sex. New York, NY: William Morrow.
Boss, P. (2013). Resilience as tolerance for ambiguity. In D. Becvar (Ed.), Handbook of family resilience (pp. 285–297). New York, NY: Springer.
Church, H. A., O’Shea, D., & Lucey, J. V. (2014). Parent-child relationships in gender identity disorder. Irish Journal of Medical Science, 183, 277–281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11845-013-1003-1
Dierckx, M., Mortelmans, D., Motmans, J., & T’Sjoen, G. (2017). Resilience in families in transition: What happens when a parent is transgender? Family Relations, 66, 399–411. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12282
Dodge, J. A. (2006). Same-sex marriage and divorce: A proposal for child custody mediation. Family Court Review, 44, 87–103. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-1617.2006.00069.x
Emery, R. E. (2011). Renegotiating family relationships: Divorce, child custody, and mediation (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford.
Emery, R. E., Sbarra, D. A., & Grover, T. (2005). Divorce mediation: Research and reflections. Family and Conciliation Courts Review, 43, 22–37. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-1617.2005.00005.x
Farr, R. H. (2017a). Does parental sexual orientation matter? A longitudinal follow-up of adoptive families with school-age children. Developmental Psychology, 53, 252–264. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000228
Farr, R. H. (2017b). Factors associated with relationship dissolution and post-dissolution adjustment among lesbian adoptive couples. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 21, 88–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/10894160.2016.1142354
Farr, R. H., & Goldberg, A. E. (2018). Sexual orientation, gender identity, and adoption law. Family Court Review, 56, 374–383. https://doi.org/10.1111/fcre.12354
Farr, R. H., & Patterson, C. J. (2013). Coparenting among lesbian, gay, and heterosexual couples: Associations with adopted children’s outcomes. Child Development, 84, 1226–1240. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12046
Farr, R. H., Tasker, F., & Goldberg, A. E. (2017). Theory in highly cited studies of sexual minority parent families: Variations and implications. Journal of Homosexuality, 64, 1143–1179. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2016.1242336
Gahan, L. (2018). Separated same-sex parents: Troubling the same-sex parented family. Sociological Research Online, 23, 245–261. https://doi.org/10.1177/1360780418754699
Gartrell, N., Bos, H., Peyser, H., Deck, A., & Rodas, C. (2011). Family characteristics, custody arrangements, and adolescent psychological well-being after lesbian mothers break up. Family Relations, 60, 572–585. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2011.00667.x
Gartrell, N., Bos, H. M. W., & Goldberg, N. G. (2011). Adolescents of the U.S. National Longitudinal Lesbian Family Study: Sexual orientation, sexual behavior, and sexual risk exposure. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40, 1199–1209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-010-9692-2
Gartrell, N., Rodas, C., Deck, A., Peyser, H., & Banks, A. (2006). The National Lesbian Family Study: Interviews with mothers of 10-year-olds. Feminism and Psychology, 16, 175–192. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959-353506062972
Gates, G. J. (2013). LGBT parenting in the United States. The Williams Institute. Retrieved from https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/LGBT-Parenting.pdf
Gates, G. J. (2015). Marriage and family: LGBT individuals and same-sex couples. Future of Children, 25, 67–87.
Goldberg, A. E. (2010). The transition to adoptive parenthood. In T. W. Miller (Ed.), Handbook of stressful transitions across the life span (pp. 165–184). New York, NY: Springer.
Goldberg, A. E., & Allen, K. R. (2013). Same-sex relationship dissolution and LGB stepfamily formation: Perspectives of young adults with LGB parents. Family Relations, 62, 529–544. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12024
Goldberg, A. E., & Garcia, R. (2015). Predictors of relationship dissolution in lesbian, gay, and heterosexual adoptive parents. Journal of Family Psychology, 29, 394–404. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000095
Goldberg, A. E., Gartrell, N., & Gates, G. (2014). Research report on LGB-parent families. The Williams Institute. Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7gr4970w
Goldberg, A. E., & Kuvalanka, K. A. (2012). Marriage (in)equality: The perspectives of adolescents and emerging adults with lesbian, gay, and bisexual parents. Journal of Marriage and Family, 74, 34–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2011.00876.x
Goldberg, A. E., Moyer, A. M., Black, K., & Henry, A. (2015). Lesbian and heterosexual adoptive mothers’ experiences of relationship dissolution. Sex Roles, 73, 141–156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-014-0432-2
Goldberg, S. K., & Conron, K. J. (2018). How many same-sex couples in the U.S. are raising children? The Williams Institute. Retrieved from https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/research/parenting/how-many-same-sex-parents-in-us/
Gottman, J. M., Levenson, R. W., Gross, J., Frederickson, B. L., McCoy, K., Rosenthal, L., . . . Yoshimoto, D. (2003). Correlates of gay and lesbian couples’ relationship satisfaction and relationship dissolution. Journal of Homosexuality, 45, 23–43. doi:https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v45n01_02
Greene, S. M., Anderson, E. R., Forgatch, M. S., DeGarmo, D. S., & Hetherington, E. M. (2012). Risk and resilience after divorce. In F. Walsh (Ed.), Normal family processes: Growing diversity and complexity (4th ed., pp. 102–127). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Joslin-Roher, E., & Wheeler, D. P. (2009). Partners in transition: The transition experience of lesbian, bisexual, and queer identified partners of transgender men. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 21, 30–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538720802494743
Kim, S. A., & Stein, E. (2018). Gender in the context of same-sex divorce and relationship dissolution. Family Court Review, 56, 384–398. https://doi.org/10.1111/fcre.12355
Kurdek, L. A. (1998). Relationship outcomes and their predictors: Longitudinal evidence from heterosexual married, gay cohabiting, and lesbian cohabiting couples. Journal of Marriage and Family, 60, 553–568. https://doi.org/10.2307/353528
Kurdek, L. A. (2004). Are gay and lesbian cohabitating couples really different from heterosexual married couples? Journal of Marriage and Family, 66, 880–900. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-2445.2004.00060.x
Kurdek, L. A. (2006). Differences between partners from heterosexual, gay, and lesbian cohabiting couples. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68, 509–528. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2006.00268.x
Langbein, L., & Yost, M. J. (2009). Same-sex marriage and negative externalities. Social Science. Quarterly, 90, 292–308. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2009.00618.x
Lansford, J. E. (2009). Parental divorce and children’s adjustment. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 140–152. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01114.x
Lau, C. Q. (2012). The stability of same-sex cohabitation, different-sex cohabitation, and marriage. Journal of Marriage and Family, 74, 973–988. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2012.01000.x
Manning, W., Brown, S., & Stykes, B. (2016). Same-sex and different-sex cohabiting couple relationship stability. Demography, 53, 937–953. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-016-0490-x
Meier, S. C., Sharp, C., Michonski, J., Babcock, J. C., & Fitzgerald, K. (2013). Romantic relationships of female-to-male trans men: A descriptive study. International Journal of Transgenderism, 14, 75–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/15532739.2013.791651
Moore, M. R. (2015). LGBT populations in studies of urban neighborhoods: Making the invisible visible. City & Community, 14, 245–248. https://doi.org/10.1111/cico.12127
Moore, M. R., & Stambolis-Ruhstorfer, M. (2013). LGBT sexuality and families at the start of the twenty-first century. Annual Review of Sociology, 39, 491–507. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-071312-145,643
Oswald, R. F., & Clausell, E. (2006). Same-sex relationships and their dissolution. In M. A. Fine & J. H. Harvey (Eds.), Handbook of divorce and relationship dissolution (pp. 499–513). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Oswald, R. F., & Culton, L. S. (2003). Under the rainbow: Rural gay life and its relevance for family providers. Family Relations, 52, 72–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2003.00072.x
Oswald, R. F., Goldberg, A., Kuvalanka, K., & Clausell, E. (2008). Structural and moral commitment among same-sex couples: Relationship duration, religiosity, and parental status. Journal of Family Psychology, 22, 411–419. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.22.3.411
Patterson, C. J. (2017). Parents’ sexual orientation and children’s development. Child Development Perspectives, 11, 45–49. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12207
Riggle, E. D. B., Wickham, R. E., Rostosky, S. S., Rothblum, E. D., & Balsam, K. F. (2017). Impact of civil marriage recognition for long-term same-sex couples. Sexuality Research & Social Policy, 14, 223–232. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-016-0243-z
Rosenfeld, M. J. (2014). Couple longevity in the era of same-sex marriage in the United States. Journal of Marriage and Family, 76, 905–918. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12141
Ross, H., Gask, K., & Berrington, A. (2011). Civil partnerships five years on. Population Trends, 145, 172–202. https://doi.org/10.1057/pt.2011.23
Rothblum, E. D., Balsam, K. F., & Solomon, S. E. (2008). Comparison of same-sex couples who were married in Massachusetts, had domestic partnerships in California, or had civil unions in Vermont. Journal of Family Issues, 29, 48–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X07306087
Shieh, W. (2016). Why same-sex couples break up: A follow-up study in Taiwan. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 12, 257–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/1550428X.2015.1057887
Shieh, W., Hsiao, Y., & Tseng, H. (2009). A comparative study of relationship quality of same- sex couples and married couples in Taiwan. Archive of Guidance and Counseling, 31(2), 1–21.
Simpson, E. K. (2017). Influence of gender-based family roles on gender transition for transgender women. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 14, 356–380. https://doi.org/10.1080/1550428X.2017.1359722
Turteltaub, G. L. (2002). The effects of long-term primary relationship dissolution on the children of lesbian parents (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertation Abstracts International (AAI3053022).
van Eeden-Moorefield, B., Few-Demo, A. L., Benson, K., Bible, J., & Lummer, S. (2018). A content analysis of LGBT research in top family journals 2000–2015. Journal of Family Issues, 39, 1374–1395. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X17710284
van Eeden-Moorefield, B., Martell, C. R., Williams, M., & Preston, M. (2011). Same-sex relationships and dissolution: The connection between heteronormativity and homonormativity. Family Relations, 60, 562–571. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2011.00669.x
von Doussa, H., Power, J., & Riggs, D. W. (2017). Family matters: Transgender and gender diverse peoples’ experience with family when they transition. Journal of Family Studies. Advance online publication. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/13229400.2017.1375965
Wiik, K. A., Seierstad, A., & Noack, T. (2014). Divorce in Norwegian same-sex marriages and registered partnerships: The role of children. Journal of Marriage and Family, 76, 919–929. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12132
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Farr, R.H., Simon, K.A., Goldberg, A.E. (2020). Separation and Divorce Among LGBTQ-Parent Families. In: Goldberg, A.E., Allen, K.R. (eds) LGBTQ-Parent Families. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35610-1_21
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35610-1_21
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-35609-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-35610-1
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)