Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Myocarditis pp 243–260Cite as

Myocarditis in Children

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Abstract

Myocarditis is an inflammatory disease of the myocardium caused by different aetiologies, principally viral infections. The clinical scenario is heterogenous, from asymptomatic/pauci-symptomatic presentation to cardiogenic shock or sudden arrhythmic death. Thus, it is a challenging, sometimes life-threatening disease due to its possible complications, representing an important cause of morbidity and mortality in children. Clinical diagnosis (“clinically suspected myocarditis”) can be obtained by non-invasive investigations, while endomyocardial biopsy still remains the gold standard for diagnosing myocarditis.

Treatment of myocarditis remains largely supportive. Immunosuppressive therapy can be useful in patients with giant cell and active infectious-negative lymphocytic myocarditis. Specific treatment strategies have been proposed (i.e., targeting viral infection or inflammation), but the efficacy of these strategies remain controversial, so far.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   79.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Richardson P, McKenna W, Bristow M, Maisch B, Mautner B, O’Connell J, Olsen E, Thiene G, Goodwin J, Gyarfas I, Martin I, Nordet P. Report of the 1995 World Health Organization/International Society and Federation of Cardiology Task Force on the definition and classification of cardiomyopathies. Circulation. 1996;93:841–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Aretz HT, Billingham ME, Edwards WD, Factor SM, Fallon JT, Fenoglio JJ Jr, Olsen EG, Schoen FJ. Myocarditis: a histopathologic definition and classification. Am J Cardiovasc Pathol. 1985;1:1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Canter CE, Simpson KE. Diagnosis and treatment of myocarditis in children in the current era. Circulation. 2014;129:115–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Freedman SB, Haladyn JK, Floh A, Kirsch JA, Taylor G, Thull-Freedman J. Pediatric myocarditis. Emergency department clinical findings and diagnostic evaluation. Pediatrics. 2007;120:1278–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Durani Y, Egan M, Baffa J, Selbst SM, Nagar AL. Pediatric myocarditis: presenting clinical characteristics. Am J Emerg Med. 2009;27:942–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Verma NA, Zheng XT, Harris MU, Cadichon SB, Melin-Aldana H, Khetsuriani N, Oberste MS, Shulman ST. Outbreak of coxsackievirus B1 myocarditis in neonates. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:759–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Ghelani SJ, Spaeder MC, Pastor W, Spurney CF, Klugman D. Demographics, trends, and outcomes in pediatric acute myocarditis in the United States, 2006 to 2011. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2012;5:622–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Anita A, Essi P, Sipilä JOT, Jouni P, Paivi R, Ville K. Occurrence and features of childhood myocarditis: a nationwide study in Finland. J Am Heart Assoc. 2017;6(11):e005306.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Webber SA, Boyle GJ, Jaffe R, Pickering RM, Beerman LB, Fricker FJ. Role of right ventricular endomyocardial biopsy in infants and children with suspected or possible myocarditis. Br Heart J. 1994;72:360–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. Daubeney PE, Nugent AW, Chondros P, Carlin JB, Colan SD, Cheung M, Davis AM, Chow CW, Weintraub RG, National Australian Childhood Cardiomyopathy Study. Clinical features and outcomes of childhood dilated cardiomyopathy: results from a national population-based study. Circulation. 2006;114:2671–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Towbin JA, Lowe AM, Colan SD, Sleeper LA, Orav EJ, Clunie S, Messere J, Cox GF, Lurie PR, Hsu D, Canter C, Wilkinson JD, Lipshultz SE. Incidence, causes, and outcomes of dilated cardiomyopathy in children. JAMA. 2006;296:1867–76.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Fairley CK, Ryan M, Wall PG, Weinberg J. The organisms reported to cause infective myocarditis and pericarditis in England and Wales. J Infect. 1996;32:223–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Freimuth P, Philipson L, Carson SD. The coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2008;323:67–87.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Pinkert S, et al. Prevention of cardiac dysfunction in acute coxsackievirus B3 cardiomyopathy by inducible expression of a soluble coxsackievirus-adenovirus receptor. Circulation. 2009;120:2358–66.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Blailock ZR, Rabin ER, Melnick JL. Adenovirus myocarditis in mice. An electron microscopic study. Exp Mol Pathol. 1968;9:84–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Pollack A, Kontorovich AR, Fuster V, Dec GW. Viral myocarditis—diagnosis, treatment options, and current controversies. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2015;12:670–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Singh P, Hemal A, Agarwal S, Kumar D. Cardiac manifestations in HIV infected children. Indian J Pediatr. 2015;82:230–4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12098-014-1481-9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Costello JM, Alexander ME, Greco KM, Perez-Atayde AR, Laussen PC. Lyme carditis in children: presentation, predictive factors, and clinical course. Pediatrics. 2009;123(5):e835–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Higuchi Mde L, Benvenuti LA, Martins Reis M, et al. Pathophysiology of the heart in Chagas’ disease: current status and new developments. Cardiovasc Res. 2003;60:96–107.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Tostes S Jr, Bertulucci Rocha-Rodrigues D, de Araujo Pereira G, et al. Myocardiocyte apoptosis in heart failure in chronic Chagas’ disease. Int J Cardiol. 2005;99:233–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Zacks MA, Wen J-J, Vyatkina G, et al. An overview of chagasic cardiomyopathy: pathogenic importance of oxidative stress. An Acad Bras Cienc. 2005;77:695–715.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Cardoni RL, Antunez MI, Morales C, et al. Release of reactive oxygen species by phagocytic cells in response to live parasites in mice infected with Trypanosoma cruzi. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1997;56:329–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Leon JS, Wang K, Engman DM. Captopril ameliorates myocarditis in acute experimental Chagas disease. Circulation. 2003;107:2264–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Cihakova D, Rose NR. Pathogenesis of myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy. Adv Immunol. 2008;99:95–114.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Busteed S, et al. Myocarditis as a prognostic indicator in systemic lupus erythematosus. Postgrad Med J. 2004;80(944):366–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Levin MD, Zoet-Nugteren SK, Markusse HM. Myocarditis and primary Sjogren’s syndrome. Lancet. 1999;354(9173):128–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Ansari A, Maron BJ, Berntson DG. Drug-induced toxic myocarditis. Tex Heart Inst J. 2003;30(1):76–9.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  28. Kaur T, Mishra B, Saikia UN, Sharma M, Bahl A, Ratho RK. Expression of coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor and its cellular localization in myocardial tissues of dilated cardiomyopathy. Exp Clin Cardiol. 2012;17(4):183–6.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Tracy S, Hofling K, Pirruccello S, et al. Group B coxsackievirus myocarditis and pancreatitis: connection between viral virulence phenotypes in mice. J Med Virol. 2000;62:70–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Bergelson JM, Cunningham JA, Droguett G, et al. Isolation of a common receptor for Coxsackie B viruses and adenoviruses 2 and 5. Science (New York, NY). 1997;275:1320–3.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Wickham TJ, Filardo EJ, Cheresh DA, et al. Integrin alpha v beta 5 selectively promotes adenovirus mediated cell membrane permeabilization. J Cell Biol. 1994;127:257–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Kashimura T, Kodama M, Hotta Y, et al. Spatiotemporal changes of coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor in rat hearts during postnatal development and in cultured cardiomyocytes of neonatal rat. Virchows Arch. 2004;444:283–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Martino TA, Petric M, Brown M, et al. Cardiovirulent coxsackieviruses and the decay-accelerating factor (CD55) receptor. Virology. 1998;244:302–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Fechner H, Noutsias M, Tschoepe C, et al. Induction of coxsackievirus-adenovirus-receptor expression during myocardial tissue formation and remodeling: identification of a cell-to-cell contact-dependent regulatory mechanism. Circulation. 2003;107:876–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Shi Y, Chen C, Lisewski U, et al. Cardiac deletion of the Coxsackievirus-adenovirus receptor abolishes Coxsackievirus B3 infection and prevents myocarditis in vivo. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;53:1219–26.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Huber SA. Autoimmunity in coxsackievirus B3 induced myocarditis. Autoimmunity. 2006;39:55–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Huang CH, Vallejo JG, Kollias G, et al. Role of the innate immune system in acute viral myocarditis. Basic Res Cardiol. 2009;104:228–37.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Szalay G, Sauter M, Hald J, et al. Sustained nitric oxide synthesis contributes to immunopathology in ongoing myocarditis attributable to interleukin-10 disorders. Am J Pathol. 2006;169:2085–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Hardarson HS, Baker JS, Yang Z, et al. Toll-like receptor 3 is an essential component of the innate stress response in virus-induced cardiac injury. Am J Phys. 2007;292:H251–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Fuse K, Chan G, Liu Y, et al. Myeloid differentiation factor-88 plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of Coxsackievirus B3-induced myocarditis and influences type I interferon production. Circulation. 2005;112:2276–85.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Fairweather D, Frisancho-Kiss S, Njoku DB, et al. Complement receptor 1 and 2 deficiency increases coxsackievirus B3-induced myocarditis, dilated cardiomyopathy, and heart failure by increasing macrophages, IL-1beta, and immune complex deposition in the heart. J Immunol. 2006;176:3516–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Lamphear BJ, Yan R, Yang F, et al. Mapping the cleavage site in protein synthesis initiation factor eIF-4 gamma of the 2A proteases from human Coxsackievirus and rhinovirus. J Biol Chem. 1993;268:19200–3.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Xiong D, Yajima T, Lim BK, et al. Inducible cardiac-restricted expression of enteroviral protease 2A is sufficient to induce dilated cardiomyopathy. Circulation. 2007;115:94–102.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Chau DH, Yuan J, Zhang H, et al. Coxsackievirus B3 proteases 2A and 3C induce apoptotic cell death through mitochondrial injury and cleavage of eIF4GI but not DAP5/p97/NAT1. Apoptosis. 2007;12:513–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Goser S, Ottl R, Brodner A, et al. Critical role for monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha in induction of experimental autoimmune myocarditis and effective anti-monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 gene therapy. Circulation. 2005;112:3400–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Rangachari M, Mauermann N, Marty RR, et al. T-bet negatively regulates autoimmune myocarditis by suppressing local production of interleukin 17. J Exp Med. 2006;203:2009–19.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Haga T, Suzuki J, Kosuge H, et al. Attenuation of experimental autoimmune myocarditis by blocking T cell activation through 4-1BB pathway. J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2009;46:719–27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Hayward SL, Bautista-Lopez N, Suzuki K, et al. CD4 T cells play major effector role and CD8 T cells initiating role in spontaneous autoimmune myocarditis of HLA-DQ8 transgenic IAb knockout nonobese diabetic mice. J Immunol. 2006;176:7715–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Caforio AL, Mahon NJ, Tona F, et al. Circulating cardiac autoantibodies in dilated cardiomyopathy and myocarditis: pathogenetic and clinical significance. Eur J Heart Fail. 2002;4:411–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Caforio AL, Mahon NJ, McKenna WJ. Cardiac autoantibodies to myosin and other heart-specific autoantigens in myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy. Autoimmunity. 2001;34:199–204.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Wallukat G, Morwinski M, Kowal K, et al. Autoantibodies against the beta-adrenergic receptor in human myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy: beta-adrenergic agonism without desensitization. Eur Heart J. 1991;12(Suppl D):178–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Blauwet LA. Myocarditis. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2010;52:274–88.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Kyto V, Saukko P, Lignitz E, et al. Diagnosis and presentation of fatal myocarditis. Hum Pathol. 2005;36:1003–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Caforio AL, Pankuweit S, Arbustini E, European Society of Cardiology Working Group on Myocardial and Pericardial Diseases, et al. Current state of knowledge on aetiology, diagnosis, management, and therapy of myocarditis: a position statement of the European Society of Cardiology Working Group on Myocardial and Pericardial Diseases. Eur Heart J. 2013;34:2636–48. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/eht210.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Bioesborek PS, Beek AM, Germans T, Niesen HW, van Rossum AC. Diagnosis of myocarditis: current state and future perspectives. Int J Cardiol. 2015;191:211–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Smith SC, Ladenson JH, Mason JW, Jaffe AS. Elevations of cardiac troponin I associated with myocarditis. Experimental and clinical correlates. Circulation. 1997;95(1):163–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Ginsberg F. Fulminant myocarditis. Crit Care Clin. 2013;29(3):465–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Liu P, Martino T, Opavsky MA, Penninger J. Viral myocarditis: balance between viral infection and immune response. Can J Cardiol. 1996;12:935–43.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Baboonian C, Treasure T. Meta-analysis of the association of enteroviruses with human heart disease. Heart. 1997;78:539–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  60. Caforio AL, Calabrese F, Angelini A, Tona F, Vinci A, Bottaro S, Ramondo A, Carturan E, Iliceto S, Thiene G, Daliento L. A prospective study of biopsy-proven myocarditis: prognostic relevance of clinical and aetiopathogenetic features at diagnosis. Eur Heart J. 2007;28:1326–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Maisch B, Bültmann B, Factor S, Gröne H-J, Hufnagel G, Kawamura K, Kühl U, Olsen EJ, Pankuweit S, Virmani R, McKenna W, Richardson PJ, Thiene G, Schultheiss HP, Sekiguchi M. World Heart Federation consensus conferences’s definition of inflammatory cardiomyopathy (myocarditis): report from two expert committees on histology and viral cardiomyopathy. Heartbeat. 1999;4:3–4.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Cooper LT Jr. Myocarditis. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:1526–38.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  63. Chien SJ, Liang CD, Lin IC, Lin YJ, Huang CF. Myocarditis complicated by complete atrioventricular block: nine years’ experience in a medical center. Pediatr Neonatol. 2008;49(6):218–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Ukena C, Mahfoud F, Kindermann I, Kandolf R, Kindermann M, Bohm M. Prognostic electrocardiographic parameters in patients with suspected myocarditis. Eur J Heart Fail. 2011;13:398–405.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Pinamonti B, Alberti E, Cigalotto A, et al. Echocardiographic findings in myocarditis. Am J Cardiol. 1988;62:285–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Leitman M, Vered Z, Tyomkin V, Macogon B, Moravsky G, Peleg E, Copel L. Speckle tracking imaging in inflammatory heart diseases. Int J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2018;34(5):787–79.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Abdel-Aty H, Boye P, Zagrosek A, et al. Diagnostic performance of cardiovascular magnetic resonance in patients with suspected acute myocarditis: comparison of different approaches. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45:1815–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Aletras AH, Kellman P, Derbyshire JA, Arai AE. ACUT2E TSE SSFP: a hybrid method for T2-weighted imaging of edema in the heart. Magn Reson Med. 2008;59:229–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Friedrich MG, Sechtem U, Schulz-Menger J, Holmvang G, Alakija P, Cooper LT, White JA, Abdel-Aty H, Gutberlet M, Prasad S, Aletras A, Laissy JP, Paterson I, Filipchuk NG, Kumar A, Pauschinger M, Liu P, International Consensus Group on Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance in Myocarditis. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance in myocarditis: A JACC White Paper. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;53(17):1475–87.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  70. Leone O, Veinot JP, Angelini A, Baandrup UT, Basso C, Berry G, Bruneval P, Burke M, Butany J, Calabrese F, d’Amati G, Edwards WD, Fallon JT, Fishbein MC, Gallagher PJ, Halushka MK, McManus B, Pucci A, Rodriguez ER, Saffitz JE, Sheppard MN, Steenbergen C, Stone JR, Tan C, Thiene G, van der Wal AC, Winters GL. 2011 consensus statement on endomyocardial biopsy from the Association for European Cardiovascular Pathology and the Society for Cardiovascular Pathology. Cardiovasc Pathol. 2012;21:245–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Baughman KL. Diagnosis of myocarditis: death of Dallas criteria. Circulation. 2006;113(4):593–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Cooper LT, Baughman KL, Feldman AM, et al. The role of endomyocardial biopsy in the management of cardiovascular disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association, the American College of Cardiology, and the European Society of Cardiology endorsed by the Heart Failure Society of America and the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J. 2007;28:3076–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Duncan BW, Bohn DJ, Atz AM, French JW, Laussen PC, Wessel DL. Mechanical circulatory support for the treatment of children with acute fulminant myocarditis. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2001;122:440.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Lowrie L. Diuretic therapy of heart failure in infants and children. Prog Pediatr Cardiol. 2000;12(1):45–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Maack C, Eschenhagen T, Hamdani N, Heinzel FR, Lyon AR, Manstein DJ, Metzger J, Papp Z, Tocchetti CG, Yilmaz MB, Anker SD, Balligand JL, Bauersachs J, Brutsaert D, Carrier L, Chlopicki S, Cleland JG, de Boer RA, Dietl A, Fischmeister R, Harjola VP, Heymans S, Hilfiker-Kleiner D, Holzmeister J, de Keulenaer G, Limongelli G, Linke WA, Lund LH, Masip J, Metra M, Mueller C, Pieske B, Ponikowski P, Ristic A, Ruschitzka F, Seferovic PM, Skouri H, Zimmermann WH, Mebazaa A. Treatments targeting inotropy. Eur Heart J. 2018;40:3626. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehy600.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  76. Masarone D, Valente F, Rubino M, Vastarella R, Gravino R, Rea A, Russo MG, Pacileo G, Limongelli G. Pediatric heart failure: a practical guide to diagnosis and management. Pediatr Neonatol. 2017;58(4):303–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Rajagolpal SK, Almond CS, Laussen PC, Rycus PT, Wypij D, Thiagarajan RR. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for the support of infants, children, and young adults with acute myocarditis: a review of the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization registry. Crit Care Med. 2010;38:382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Bink-Boelkens MT. Pharmacologic management of arrhythmias. Pediatr Cardiol. 2000;21:508.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Kühl U, Pauschinger M, Schwimmbeck PL, Seeberg B, Lober C, Noutsias M, Poller W, Schultheiss HP. Interferon-beta treatment eliminates cardiotropic viruses and improves left ventricular function in patients with myocardial persistence of viral genomes and left ventricular dysfunction. Circulation. 2003;107(22):2793–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Schultheiss HP, Piper C, Sowade O, Waagstein F, Kapp JF, Wegscheider K, Groetzbach G, Pauschinger M, Escher F, Arbustini E, Siedentop H, Kuehl U. Betaferon in chronic viral cardiomyopathy (BICC) trial: Effects of interferon-β treatment in patients with chronic viral cardiomyopathy. Clin Res Cardiol. 2016;105(9):763–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Druncker NA, Colan SD, Lewis AB, Beiser AS, Wessel DL, Takahashi M, Baker AL, Perez-Atayde AR, Newbunger JW. Gamma-globulin treatment of acute myocarditis in the pediatric population. Circulation. 1994;89(1):252–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  82. English RF, Janosky JE, Ettedgui JA, Webber SA. Outcomes for children with acute myocarditis. Cardiol Young. 2004;14(5):488–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Robinson J, Hartling L, Vandermeer B, Klassen TP. Intravenous immunoglobulin for presumed viral myocarditis in children and adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(5):CD004370. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004370.pub3.

  84. Schultheiss HP, Kühl U, Cooper LT. The management of myocarditis. Eur Heart J. 2011;32(21):2616–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Müller J, Wallukat G, Dandel M, Bieda H, Brandes K, Spiegelsberger S, Nissen E, Kunze R, Hetzer R, Muller J. Immunoglobulin adsorption in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Circulation. 2000;101(4):385–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Frustaci A. Immunosuppressive therapy in myocarditis. Circ J. 2015;79(1):4–7. https://doi.org/10.1253/circj.CJ-14-1192. Epub 2014 Dec 2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Maisch B, Pankuweit S. Current treatment options in (peri)myocarditis and inflammatory cardiomyopathy. Herz. 2012;37(6):644–56. Review.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Bergmann KRP. Myocarditis and pericarditis in the pediatric patient: validated management strategies. Emerg Med Pract. 2015;12(7):1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  89. Aziz KU, Patel N, Sadullah T, Tasneem H, Thawerani H, Talpur S. Acute viral myocarditis: role of immunosuppression: a prospective randomised study. Cardiol Young. 2010;20(5):509–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Cooper LT Jr, Hare JM, Tazelaar HD, Edwards WD, Starling RC, Deng MC, et al. Usefulness of immunosuppression for giant cell myocarditis. Am J Cardiol. 2008;102:1535–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Paediatric Cardiology, Department of Translational Medical Sciences, Vanvitelli University, Naples, Italy

    Giuseppe Limongelli, Daniele Masarone, Emanuele Monda, Augusto Esposito, Marta Rubino & Giuseppe Pacileo

  2. Heart Failure Unit, AORN Colli, Naples, Italy

    Giuseppe Limongelli, Daniele Masarone, Emanuele Monda, Augusto Esposito, Marta Rubino & Giuseppe Pacileo

  3. Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences, University College of London, London, UK

    Giuseppe Limongelli

Authors
  1. Giuseppe Limongelli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Daniele Masarone
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Emanuele Monda
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Augusto Esposito
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Marta Rubino
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Giuseppe Pacileo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Giuseppe Limongelli .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Cardiology, Department of Cardiac Thoracic Vascular Science and Public Health, University of Padova, Policlinico Universitario, Padova, Italy

    Alida L. P. Caforio

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Limongelli, G., Masarone, D., Monda, E., Esposito, A., Rubino, M., Pacileo, G. (2020). Myocarditis in Children. In: Caforio, A. (eds) Myocarditis. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35276-9_13

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35276-9_13

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-35275-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-35276-9

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation