Abstract
Comparative law and comparative studies are indispensable in modern society. In our lives there are ongoing processes of borrowing, transplantation, imitation and imposition of law and increasing regional or even global interdependence (potentially both desired and undesired). Given that the main focus of this book is on harmonisation, the comparative law argument becomes indispensable, as harmonisation without comparative studies is not possible. Yet, comparative studies do not guarantee successful harmonisation. While the book does not aim to address the success of the EU legal transplants, nonetheless, it examines the extent to which harmonisation is taking place. Traditionally, comparative studies can be employed in the EU to achieve its ultimate goal of European integration which involves harmonising national laws. There can also be a vice versa process where the formation of the European Union with its integration objective can provide a strong impulse for comparative studies. This can be witnessed in a pronounced revival of both academic and practical interest in comparative studies within in the EU, where ‘comparativism plays a crucial role in the “nurturing” of this [‥] supranational system of law’ with its legal order being defined by scholars as ‘a real laboratory for the study of the comparative methods’.
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Notes
- 1.
Vranken (1997), p. 14.
- 2.
Örücü (2000), p. 3.
- 3.
Örücü (2002).
- 4.
Markesinis (1990), p. 1.
- 5.
Zweigert and Kötz (1998), p. 2.
- 6.
Kiikeri (2012).
- 7.
Kennedy (2002), p. 345.
- 8.
For instance, Aristotle’s Politics compiled the ‘constitutions’ of 158 Greek city-states. For further discussion, see Donahue (2008), pp. 3–32.
- 9.
Also, the drafting of the XII Tables for Rome preceded a comparative study involving enquiries in the Greek cities as suggested by David and Brierley (1985). Many other historical precedents were also involved in comparative studies. For instance, in the Middle Ages the Canon law and Roman law were compared. Later, Montesquieu based his famous L’Espirit des Lois on comparison in order to penetrate the spirit of laws and thereby form common principles of good government. For further reading, see David and Brierley (1985), pp. 1–2.
- 10.
Donahue (2008), pp. 3–32.
- 11.
- 12.
Kahn-Freund (1974), p. 81.
- 13.
Watson (1993).
- 14.
Watson claims that those who chose to compare ought to have regard to the rules without reflecting on their impact on society. Nelken and Feest (2001).
- 15.
Watson (1993).
- 16.
Ibid.
- 17.
Apart from Kahn-Freund, other scholars, such as Legrand and Seidmans radically object the utility of ‘borrowing’. See, Legrand (1997), pp. 44–46.
- 18.
In his book ‘Esprit des Lois’ (Book I, Chapter 3).
- 19.
Freund-Kahn believes that the law is so closely to its environment, and any attempt to transplant a law outside its environment will carry the risk of rejection. Kahn-Freund (1974).
- 20.
Kahn-Freund (1974), p. 27.
- 21.
- 22.
- 23.
For further discussion on the reflection of Legrand’s arguments (especially in the context of the differences between common law and civil law legal systems), see Van Hoecke and Warrington (1998), pp. 495–536.
- 24.
Seidman and Seidman (1994), pp. 44–46.
- 25.
Schlesinger (1961). Schlesinger noted that the future belongs to integrative comparative law and predispose the EU’s ius commune as an example of integration of similar and different legal systems.
- 26.
Bogdan (1994).
- 27.
De Cruz (1995).
- 28.
Nelken (1997).
- 29.
Teubner (1998).
- 30.
Zweigert and Kötz analysed comparability through the prism of functionality, namely in the context of usefulness and need. Zweigert and Kötz (1998).
- 31.
Mistelis (2000). Mistelis observed that globalisation required global or at least regional solutions and integrative transnational approaches seemed to be a realistic response.
- 32.
Van Hoecke (2000).
- 33.
Örücü (2002).
- 34.
Kanda and Milhaupt (2003).
- 35.
Berkowitz et al. (2003).
- 36.
Glen (2004).
- 37.
Reimann and Zimmermann (2008).
- 38.
Smits (2007).
- 39.
Each note (as legal institution or rule) is sung (otherwise used or introduced) at the same place in the scale of the new key (of the recipient) as it did in the original key (of the model); the ‘transposition’ occurring to suit the particular voice-range (socio-legal culture and needs) of the singer (as the recipient country). For further reading, see Örücü (2002).
- 40.
When elements from two different communities combine, for instance, one drawing its understanding from culture and the other from law, they may mesh bringing ‘cultural conversation’ into a broader narrative. This is the ‘fit’, and ‘transpositions’ and ‘tuning’ at the time of transplant are vital for this ‘fit’. For further discussion, see Örücü (2003), pp. 16–17. In agreement with Örücü, Nelken also questions the notion of ‘transplant’ for its ambiguity and warns not to lose the sight on ‘how different metaphors mobilise and favour different ideas about how law fits society’. Nelken (2004).
- 41.
Teubner (1998).
- 42.
Teuber (2000), p. 250.
- 43.
Teubner (1998), p. 17.
- 44.
Kanda and Milhaupt (2003), p. 891.
- 45.
Teubner (1998), p. 12.
- 46.
Nelken (2003), p. 463.
- 47.
Berkowitz et al. (2003).
- 48.
Örücü identifies them as trends. Örücü (2000).
- 49.
See, for instance, Yntema (1956).
- 50.
Örücü (2000).
- 51.
See, Reimann and Zimmermann (2008). The large part of this book is dedicated to various approaches. For example, see Comparative Law and Religion, by Berman HJ Chapter 22; Comparative Law and Legal History, by Gordley J, Chapter 23; Comparative Law and Critical Legal Studies, by Mattei U, Chapter 25 etc.
- 52.
Örücü (2000), p. 10.
- 53.
For instance, as one of the examples could be the clash of cultures between British law and local law during the colonial period, which had very significant consequences since the export of British law was a one-way process, an imposition, with no element of choice involved. For further discussion, see Örücü (2000).
- 54.
Legrand (2017). “Positivism” in this context is referred as a set of epistemological convention defining of scientific rationality in the western world, rather than positivism addressed by John Austin.
- 55.
Legrand (2017), p. 51.
- 56.
Banakas (2002).
- 57.
Ehrlich (1939), p. XV.
- 58.
Bell (1995).
- 59.
Lasser (2003), p. 154.
- 60.
Cotterell (1997), pp. 13–14.
- 61.
Banakas (2002).
- 62.
Legrand (1996), p. 56.
- 63.
Van Hoecke (2000), p. 3.
- 64.
Örücü (2007), p. 58.
- 65.
Frankenberg (1985), p. 422. In its critique of comparative law Frankenberg further claims that despite comparatists being open-minded and thinking supra-nationally, “the civil and common law still rule over the comparatists’ world”.
- 66.
Demleitner (1999), p. 741.
- 67.
There has been some influence from the US as well in some CEE countries. Further discussion is provided in section 2.4.2.
- 68.
Cotterell (2007).
- 69.
Kennedy (1991), p. 327.
- 70.
Mahoney (2001), p. 504.
- 71.
Foster (2007), p. 278.
- 72.
Cappelletti (1970), p. 881.
- 73.
Banakas (2002), p. 3.
- 74.
Van Hoecke (2000), p. 5.
- 75.
Glenn (2007), pp. 91–98.
- 76.
Van Hoecke (2000), p. 9.
- 77.
Ibid, p. 8.
- 78.
Banakas (2002), p. 6.
- 79.
Directive 2014/104/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 November 2014 on certain rules governing actions for damages under national law for infringements of the competition law provisions of the Member States and of the European Union Text with EEA relevance, OJ L 349, 5.12.2014, pp. 1–19.
- 80.
Smits (2007), p. 237.
- 81.
Directive 2014/104/EU and Directive (EU) 2019/1.
- 82.
De Geest and Van den Bergh (2004).
- 83.
Faust (2008), p. 863.
- 84.
Mattei (1997).
- 85.
De Geest and Van den Bergh (2004).
- 86.
Faust (2008), p. 863.
- 87.
Mattei (1994), pp. 3–19.
- 88.
However, in reality, free market economies do not automatically produce these benign outcomes, mainly due to market distortions and/or market failures. Therefore, governments intervene in markets, for example, to correct or prevent market failure. For further discussion, see Veljanovski (2010), pp. 34–35.
- 89.
Faust (2008), p. 847.
- 90.
Mattei (1994), p. 3.
- 91.
- 92.
- 93.
Gottwald (2005), pp. 23–35.
- 94.
Malinauskaite (2010a).
- 95.
For instance, the original framework of the European Community, i.e. the 1957 Treaty of Rome bears a strong resemblance to a civil code; further the institutions themselves, especially the European Court of Justice and the auxiliary office of the Advocate General has the imprints of French administrative law. Principle of proportionality (‘verhaltinismassigkeit’) and the concept of legitimate expectations (‘vertraversschutz’) originate from German law, and the principle of audi alteram partem was introduced by the English legal system. All these principles have found their ways into the general principles of the EU applied by the CJEU. For further reading, see Vranken (1997).
- 96.
Ehlermann (2000), p. 540.
- 97.
Toshkov (2012).
- 98.
Zekoll (2008), pp. 1328–1329.
- 99.
Seidman (2016).
- 100.
Zekoll (2008), p. 1328.
- 101.
The expert managed to formulate fourteen articles on procedural principles potentially agreeable to all Member States in the EU. For further reading, see Storme (1994).
- 102.
The Support for East European Democracy Act (22 U.S.C. Sec. 5401) and the Agency for International Development granted the FTC and DoJ funding to implement technical assistance projects in competition policy and law and enforcement in 1990 in Poland and Czechoslovakia and in 1991 in Bulgaria. See, Langenfield and Blitzer (1991).
- 103.
Twinning projects provide support for the transposition, implementation and enforcement of the EU Union acquis. It strives to share good practices developed within the EU with beneficiary public administrations and to foster long-term relationships between administrations of existing and future EU countries. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/tenders/twinning_en. Accessed 10 June 2019. A personal involvement should be declared here and work visits in Germany.
- 104.
- 105.
In the “July 2004 package” the WTO General Council marked that the issue of competition policy ‘will not form part of the Work Programme set out in that Declaration and therefore no work towards negotiations on any of these issues will take place within the WTO during the Doha Round’. WTO, The General Council’s post-Cancun decision, the “July 2004 package”, WT/L/579 2 August 2004, at para (g). For further reading on this topic, see Crane (2009), and Malinauskaite (2010a).
- 106.
There have been also quite rightful resistance from the developing countries due to the drafting being made on the developed countries model unsuitable for developing jurisdictions.
- 107.
- 108.
- 109.
- 110.
Cauffman and Hao (2016).
- 111.
Duns et al. (2015).
- 112.
Fox (2007), p. 211.
- 113.
Gal and Fox (2014), p. 374.
- 114.
Gerber (2005).
- 115.
Fikentschcer and Ullrich (1998).
- 116.
Van den Bergh (2017).
- 117.
Dabbah (2010).
- 118.
Gal and Fox (2014), p. 374.
- 119.
- 120.
Gerber (2005), p. 24.
- 121.
Available at www.clcpecreu.co.uk. The findings have also been published in Rodger (2014). There is also more recent study on the transposition of the Antirust Damages Directive in the selected EU Member States, including Hungary, Poland, and Lithuania. Rodger et al. (2019).
- 122.
Cseres (2010), pp. 145–182.
- 123.
Gerber (2008), p. 24.
- 124.
Toshkov (2012).
- 125.
- 126.
- 127.
Piszcz (2017).
- 128.
https://www.yars.wz.uw.edu.pl/ Accessed 10 June 2019.
- 129.
For instance, one of the main objectives of the Antitrust Damages Directive is to regulate some key aspects of the interaction between public and private enforcement of EU competition law, with a view to striking a balance between enforcement by the Commission and NCAs and damages actions before national courts and thus achieving effective overall enforcement of the EU competition rules. See, Directive 2014/104/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 November 2014 on certain rules governing actions for damages under national law for infringements of the competition law provisions of the Member States and of the European Union Text with EEA relevance OJ L 349, 5.12.2014, pp. 1–19. In addition, in most cases private action take place using a follow-on path rather than stand-alone.
- 130.
Foster (2007), pp. 279–280.
- 131.
Nelken (2007), p. 21.
- 132.
Cotterell (2007).
- 133.
- 134.
Örücü (2007), p. 62.
- 135.
Örücü (2007), p. 51.
- 136.
- 137.
Michaels (2008), p. 377.
- 138.
Directive 2014/104/EU.
- 139.
Malinauskaite and Cauffman (2018).
- 140.
See, for instance, Waelbroeck et al. (2004). Comparative Report, (known as the Ashurst report).
- 141.
Örücü (2007), p. 48.
- 142.
Zweigert and Kötz (1998).
- 143.
Zweigert and Kötz (1977), p. 25.
- 144.
Örücü (2004), p. 19.
- 145.
Graziadei (2003), p. 105.
- 146.
Örücü (2007), p. 51.
- 147.
For further discussion, see Platsas (2008).
- 148.
Zweigert and Kötz (1998), p. 36.
- 149.
Ibid, pp. 34–35, 38.
- 150.
Michaels (2008), p. 364.
- 151.
For further discussion, see Daniels (1952), pp. 143–147.
- 152.
Örücü (2003), p. 8.
- 153.
- 154.
Nelken (2007), p. 25.
- 155.
Ibid, p. 32.
- 156.
Article 167(1) TFEU.
- 157.
Article 167(4) TFEU.
- 158.
Örücü (2007), p. 52.
- 159.
Graziadei (2003), p. 101.
- 160.
Recital 6 of the Directive provides: “to ensure effective private enforcement actions under civil law and effective public enforcement by competition authorities, both tools are required to interact to ensure maximum effectiveness of the competition rules”. Directive 2014/104/EU.
- 161.
See for instance, Waelbroeck et al. (2004). The Ashurst report.
- 162.
Nelken (2007), p. 34.
- 163.
Örücü (2007), p. 56.
- 164.
Pieters (2009), p. 24.
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Malinauskaite, J. (2020). Plethora of Comparative Studies. In: Harmonisation of EU Competition Law Enforcement. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30233-7_2
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