Abstract
This chapter looks at Indigenous rights in Amazon countries, comparing the substantive law with its practical implementation. While constitutions evidence a clear intent to protect Indigenous groups, enforcement is often problematic, and the rights of Indigenous populations have rarely been vindicated. Through an analysis of some case studies in Amazonia, such as the Chevron oil spill in Ecuador, the Belo Monte Dam in Brazil, and the TIPNIS Project in Bolivia, this chapter discusses whether these constitutional provisions are being respected. Almost 400 Indigenous groups currently live throughout the Amazon region, which is shared by nine countries. Due to their close proximity to the region’s rich natural resources, Indigenous groups are some of the most affected populations by infrastructure projects and other initiatives to promote socio-economic development. These groups have suffered marginalization by their governments, and were traditionally excluded from the approval process of these projects. However, after a series of constitutional revisions, most countries embraced provisions recognizing Indigenous rights and environmental protections, including the right to Free, Prior, and Informed Consent and the right to participation. The recognition of constitutional environmental rights for Indigenous communities was the first step in a long battle to ensure the voices of Indigenous groups are heard, both politically and in terms of economic development plans. Although Indigenous groups and their lands are constitutionally protected, actually putting these rights into practice has been proven a challenge. In most cases, states have difficulty redressing environmentally harmful practices when it conflicts with plans for economic development.
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Notes
- 1.
As an overseas department of France, French Guiana is not included in this analysis.
- 2.
UNDRIP, art. 8. The issue is, however, very controversial among political scholars and anthropologists. There has been a recent rise in self-identification of Indigenous peoples, especially in Bolivia and Brazil, mostly linked to a political identity rather than genealogy, and leading to a weaker position of Indigenous groups that are truly marginalized.
- 3.
An overview of the occupation of the region is provided in Tigre’s Regional Cooperation in Amazonia pp. 35–47.
- 4.
These include territories officially recognized for traditional use, areas without official recognition, land reserves, and proposals for land reserves.
- 5.
International Labour Organization, Ratifications of C169—Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169).
- 6.
For example, A/HRC/18/35, paras. 30–55.
- 7.
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Sept. 13, 2007, G.A. Res. 61/295, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (2007) [hereinafter United Nations Declaration].
- 8.
See, e.g., CEACR. Individual Observation concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169) Ecuador, ILO Doc. 062010ECU169, para. 4 (2010); CEACR, Individual Observation concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169) Guatemala, ILO Doc. 062006GTM169, paras. 10, 13, and 15 (2006); CEACR, Individual Observation concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169) Mexico, ILO Doc. 062006MEX169, para. 10 (2006).
- 9.
See discussion in Ward 2011, as well as in Alexandra Xanthaki, Indigenous Rights in International Law over the Last 10 Years and Future Developments (2009).
- 10.
Saramaka People v. Suriname, Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations, and Cost, Inter-Am. Ct. H.R. (ser. C) No. 174, para. 131 and 136 (Nov. 28, 2007) [hereinafter Saramaka People v. Suriname].
- 11.
See, e.g., U.N. High Comm’r. for Human Rights, Concluding observations of the Human Rights Committee: Chile, ¶ 19, U.N. Doc. CCPR/C/CHL/CO/5 (March 12–30, 2007); U.N. High Comm’r. for Human Rights, Concluding observations of the Human Rights Committee: Panama, ¶ 21, U.N. Doc. CCPR/C/PAN/CO/3 (Apr. 17, 2008); U.N. High Comm’r. for Human Rights, Concluding observations of the Human Rights Committee: Nicaragua, ¶ 21, U.N. Doc. CCPR/C/NIC/CO/3 (Dec. 12, 2008).
- 12.
More discussion on consultation can be found within the U.N. High Comm’r. for Human Rights, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights [CESCR], Concluding observations of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Colombia, 12 and 33, U.N. Doc. E/C.12/1/Add.74 (Dec. 6, 2007); CESCR, Concluding observations of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Ecuador, ¶ 12 and 35, U.N. Doc. E/C.12/1/Add.100 (June 7, 2004).
- 13.
The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, adopted on Dec. 21, 1965, and entered into force Jan. 4, 1969.
- 14.
See, e.g., U.N. Comm’n. on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Concluding observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination: Ecuador, ¶ 16, U.N. Doc. CERD/C/ECU/CO/19 (Sept. 22, 2008); U.N. Comm’n. on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Concluding observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination: Namibia, ¶ 18, U.N. Doc. CERD/C/NAM/CO/12 (Sept. 22, 2008); U.N. Comm’n. on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Concluding observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination: USA, ¶ 29, U.N. Doc. CERD/C/USA/CO/6 (May 8, 2008).
- 15.
Organisation of American States, American Convention on Human Rights, enacted Nov. 22, 1969.
- 16.
See the Declaration, art. 19; ILO Convention No. 169, art. 6, para. 2. In all instances of proposed extractive projects that might affect Indigenous peoples, consultations with them should take place and consent should at least be sought, even if consent is not strictly required (Report of the Special Rapporteur-Anaya 2013 p. 9).
- 17.
Including the nature, size, pace, reversibility; its purpose and duration; locality and areas affected; a preliminary assessment of the predicted economic, social, cultural, and environmental impact, including potential risks; personnel likely to be involved in the execution of the project; and procedures the project may entail.
- 18.
Law 222 was enacted by Bolivia’s Plurinational Legislative Assembly on February 10, 2012 specifically to address consultation in the context of the TIPNIS project.
- 19.
This legislation was enacted as Decree No. 7.747 (2002).
- 20.
Sentencia No. 001-10-SIN-CC, decided in March 2010, determined the constitutionality of Ecuador’s Mining Law.
- 21.
Ecuador’s Hydrocarbon law, known as Decree 1247, was enacted on July 19, 2012.
- 22.
In 2014, Peru’s Ministry of Energy and Mines announced that oil exploration projects would be excused from filing EIA reports, mandated by law, in order to accelerate these projects.
- 23.
NGO Cultural Survival reports in its assessment of Indigenous rights in Suriname, Observations on the State of Indigenous Human Rights in Suriname In Light of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples which was prepared for the U.N. Human Rights Council, that its Constitution ignores UNDRIP requirements found in Art. 6, 26, 27, and 33 mandating recognition of Indigenous peoples.
- 24.
This law is known as the Natuurbeschermings besluit van 1998 in Suriname.
- 25.
Demarcation was to be completed by 2002, but is not yet complete as of 2018.
- 26.
For example, organized protests, occupation of excavation sites on Indigenous territory, and letter writing campaigns have been heavily employed in all case studies presented.
- 27.
See Usina Hidrelétrica São Luiz do Tapajós, Ação Civil Pública no. 3883-98.2012.4.01.3902 (the federal court of Santarém, Pará, recognized the government’s obligation to consult with Indigenous and traditional communities); Usina Hidrelétrica Teles Pires, Ação Civil Pública no. 3947-44.2012.4.01.3600 (the federal court ordered the suspension of construction to comply with consultation processes); Usina Hidrelétrica São Manoel, Ação Civil Pública no. 14123-48.2013.4.01.3600 (the federal court ordered the Brazilian government to consult with Indigenous communities in the beginning of construction).
- 28.
A complete list of cases, “Processos caso Belo Monte,” is available from Estadão Jornal Digital at http://politica.estadao.com.br/blogs/fausto-macedo/wp-content/uploads/sites/41/2014/10/Tabela_de_acompanhamento_atualizada_Out_2014-1.pdf.
- 29.
TRF1, AC 2006.39.03.000711-8, UHE Belo Monte; For an in-depth discussion of the effects of the Brazilian government’s position on the Inter-American System, it is recommended to attend the Seminar “The Belo Monte Case: Challenges and Opportunities for the Protection of Human Rights and the Environment in the Inter-American.” Tribunal Regional Federal da 1a Região. Seção Judiciária do Pará. Ação Civil Pública—Processo no. 2006.39.03.000711-8 e 709-88.2006.4.01.3903.
- 30.
SLAT is defined under Art. 4 of Federal Law No. 8,437/1992.
- 31.
The entire decision and discussion of this case can be found in STF, DECISÃO MONOCRÁTICA NA RECLAMAÇÃO CONSTITUCIONAL No. 14.404, UHE BELO MONTE from the Center for Information on Prior Consultation available at http://www.consultaprevia.org/#!/documento/157.
- 32.
As reported by several Brazilian news outlets, including G1 (Globo), Folha de S. Paulo and Poder 360.
- 33.
“In this way, the fundamental right of the community to preserve integrity is guaranteed and made effective through the exercise of another right that is also fundamental, such as the right of participation of the community in the adoption of said decisions.” Sentencia SU-039 (1997).
- 34.
Corte Constituciónal Sentencia su-039/97, decided February 3, 1997, applying ILO C169.
- 35.
See an overview of the case and the laws applied in Tigre (2013).
- 36.
In Chevron v. Donziger, 871 F.Supp.2d 229 (S.D.N.Y. 2012) the Ecuador judgment was invalidated when the Court found that the Indigenous plaintiff’s attorney had violated the RICO Act under U.S. law. The 2nd Circuit later ruled that Chevron’s appeal to prevent the Ecuador judgement from being enforced was premature. An appeal by Chevron to the U.S. Supreme Court was rejected in 2012.
- 37.
The PCA stated in its decision that the Respondents, “wrongfully committed a denial of justice under the standards both for fair and equitable treatment and for treatment required by customary international law under Article II(3)(a) of the Treaty [Encouragement and Reciprocal Protection of Investment, U.S.-Ecu., Aug. 27, 1993, 3699 KAV i-xliv].”
- 38.
Corte Constituciónal of Ecuador, Sentencia 0126-12-JC 2012, decided November 21, 2012.
- 39.
In Caso Comunidades Indígenas Miembros de la Asociación Lhaka Honhat (Nuestra Tierra) vs. Argentina (Feb 6, 2020), the Inter-American Court also held in favor of indigenous communities, recognizing their right to property and FPIC, as well as a series of autonomous rights, including the right to a healthy environment, to food and water. See Maria Antonia Tigre, Lhaka Honhat Association vs. Argentina: The Human Right to Environment in the Inter-American Court § 2020 (GNHRE, Apr. 10, 2020).
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U.N. Comm’n. on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination: Annex V—General Recommendation XXIII, para. 4(d), U.N. Doc. Supplement No. 18 (A/52/18) (1997, Sept 26)
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Appendix
Appendix
Table of Abbreviations
Belo Monte | Belo Monte Dam (Portuguese: Complexo Hidrelétrico Belo Monte) |
CERD | Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination |
CESCR | Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights |
Corte IDH | Interamerican Court of Human Rights (Spanish: Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos) |
DPLF | Due Process of Law Foundation |
ECLAC | Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean |
FPIC | Free, Prior and Informed Consent |
FPM | Federal Public Ministry (Public Prosecutor’s Office of Brazil) |
HRC | Human Rights Committee (United Nations) |
ILO | International Labour Organization |
ILO C169 | Convention 169—Convention concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries, 1989. Adopted by the International Labour Organization, entered into force 1991 |
IACHR | Inter-American Commission on Human Rights |
ICCPR | International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights |
ICERD | International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination |
ICESCR | International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights |
OAS | Organization of American States |
PNGATI | National Policy on Territorial and Environmental Management of Indigenous Lands (Portuguese: Política Nacional de Gestão Ambiental e Territorial em terras indígenas) |
SLAT Mechanism | Suspension of Injunction and Anticipation of Guardianship (Portuguese: Suspensão de Liminar e Antecipação de Tutela) |
STF | Federal Supreme Court (Brazil) (Portuguese: Supremo Tribunal Federal) |
TIPNIS | Isiboro Sécure National Park and Indigenous Territory (Spanish: Territorio Indígena y Parque Nacional Isiboro Secure) |
TRF-1 | Regional Federal Tribunal for the 1st Region (Portuguese: Tribunal Regional Federal da 1ª Região) |
UNDRIP | United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples |
Table of Authorities
Cases by Country
Bolivia | Tribunal Constitucional Plurinacional [T.C.P.] [Constitutional Court], 18 de junio de 2012, Sentencia Constitucional No. 0300/2012, (Gaz. of. No. 0712, pp. 1–68) (Bol.) |
Brazil | Tribunal Regional Federal da 1ª Região TRF-1—Apelação Civel: AC 2006.39.03.000711-8 UHE Belo Monte. Usina Hidrelétrica São Luiz do Tapajós, Ação Civil Pública no. 3883-98.2012.4.01.3902; no. 3947-44.2012.4.01.3600; no. 14123-48.2013.4.01.3600 |
Colombia | Corte Constituciónal [C.C.][Constitutional Court], enero 26, 2009, Sentencia Auto 004/09, Relatoría de la Corte Constituciónal (pg. 1)(Colom.) Corte Constituciónal [C.C.][Constitutional Court], febrero 3, 1997, Sentencia su-039/97, Aplicación del convenio núm. 169 de la OIT por tribunales nacionales e internacionales en Ámerica Latina, (p. 69) (Colom.) |
Ecuador | Corte Constituciónal [C.C.][Constitutional Court], 21 noviembre 2012, Sentencia 0126-12-JC, Rendición de Cuentas del Proceso de Seleción (Período 2008–2013, p. 75) (Ecuador) Corte Constituciónal [C.C.][Constitutional Court], 18 marzo 2010, Sentencia No. 001-10-SIN-CC, Rendición de Cuentas del Proceso de Seleción (Período 2008–2013) (Ecuador) |
Peru | See International Authorities. |
Statutes, Decrees and Regulations by Country
Bolivia | Constitución Política del Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia, [C.P.][Constitution] (2009). art. 20s. 2(6), (15)–(17), art. 30s. 2(7), (10), art. 352 Law 222—Ley que convoca a Consulta a los pueblos Indígenas del Territorio Indígena y Parque Nacional Isiboro Sécure—TIPNIS, Gaz. Of. (Bol.) 341NEC—Del: 2012-02-10, 02 Oct. 2012 Ley No. 180, 24 de octubre de 2011, Ley de Protección del Territorio Indígena Y Parque Nacional Isiboro Sécure—Tipnis, Gaz. Of. (Bol.) 308NEC—Del: 2011-10-25, 25 Oct. 2011 Ley No. 266-17, 3 de julio de 2017, Ley de Protección, Desarrollo Integral y Sustentable del Territorio Indígena Parque Nacional Isiboro Secure-TIPNIS, Gaz. Of. (Bol.) CD-BCBA-060/2017-2018 |
Brazil | Constituição Federal (1988) [C.F.] [Constitution] (Braz.), art. 20s. 3, 6, art. 30s. 2, art. 231 Decreto No. 5.051 2004 art. 7–8 Decreto No. 7.747 2002 art. 3, Sec. XI, art. 4, Sec. II(f), art. 4, Sec. III(a) Decreto Legislativo No. 788/2005, de 13 de julho de 2005, Diário Oficial da União. Seção 1. 14/07/2005. P.1 Decreto No. 5.051, de 19 de abril de 2004, D.O.U. de 20.04.2004. (Brazil) Decreto No. 7.747, 5 de Junho de 2012, D.O.U. de 06.06.2012. (Brazil) Lei No. 8.437, de 30 de Junho de 1992, D.O.U. de 01.07.1992. p. 8357 (Brazil) National Policy on Territorial and Environmental Management of Indigenous Lands (PNGATI) |
Colombia | Constitución Política de Colombia (1991) [C.P.] (Colom.) art. 80, 246, 329, 330 Ley 21, marzo 6, 1991, DIARIO OFICIAL [D.O.] (Colom.) Ley 99, diciembre 22, 1993, DIARIO OFICIAL [D.O.] (Colom.) |
Ecuador | Constitución de la República del Ecuador [Constitution] (2008). art. 14, art. 57, art. 408 Decree 1247 of 19 July 2012, 759 R.O., Aug. 2, 2012 (Ecu.) |
Guyana | Constitution of Guyana, as amended 2009. art. 142(2)(b) Amerindian Act of 2006, Sec. 48 |
Peru | Constitución Política del Perú art. 66, 67 General Environmental Act art. 70 (Law 28611) Ley No. 29785 El Peruano (Separata), 2011-09-07, págs. 449529–449532 (Peru) |
Suriname | Grondwet van Suriname (1987) [Constitution], as amended 1992. Natuurbeschermingsbesluit van 1998 (Surin.) |
Venezuela | Ley Orgánica de Pueblos y Comunidades Indígenas de 2005. Gaceta Oficial, 2005-12-27, núm. 38344, págs. 343651–343664 (Venez.) |
International Authorities
Cases
Chevron v. Donziger, 871 F.Supp.2d 229 (S.D.N.Y. 2012) (U.S.).
Chevron Corp. v. Ecuador, Case No. 2009-23, Second Partial Award, (PCA 2018), https://pca-cpa.org/en/cases/49/.
CIDH, Medida Cautelar No. 382/2010 (2011) Comunidades Indígenas de la Cuenca del Río Xingu, pará, Brasil.
Kichwa Indigenous People of Sarayaku v. Ecuador, Merits and Reparations, Judgment, Inter-Am. Ct. H.R. (ser. C) No. 245 (June 27, 2002).
Saramaka People v. Suriname, Judgment (Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations, and Costs), Inter-Am. Ct. H.R. (ser. C) No. 172. (November 28, 2007).
Maynas v. Occidental, 643 F.3d 1216 (9th Cir. 2011). (U.S.).
Conventions, Treaties and Resolutions
American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, O.A.S. Res. XXX, reprinted in Basic Documents Pertaining to Human Rights in the Inter-American System, OAS/Ser.L/V/I.4 Rev. 9 (2003); 43 AJIL Supp. 133, (1949).
CESCR, General comment No. 21 Right of everyone to take part in cultural life (art. 15, para. 1 (a), of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), U.N. Doc. E/C.12/GC/21 (Dec. 21, 2009). para. 36.
International Labour Organization (ILO), Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, C169, 27 June 1989.
International Labour Organization (ILO), Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1957 C107, 26 June 1957.
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Dec. 16, 1966, 993 U.N.T.S. 3 (1967).
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, Dec. 21, 1965, 660 U.N.T.S. 195 (entered into force Jan. 4, 1969).
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Dec. 16, 1966, 999 U.N.T.S. 171 (1978) art. 27.
Organisation of American States, American Convention on Human Rights, Nov. 22, 1969, O.A.S. T.S. No. 36; 1144 U.N.T.S. 123.
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007), G.A. Res. 61/295, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 13 Sept, 2007.
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Tigre, M.A., Slinger, S.C. (2020). A Voice in the Development of Amazonia: The Constitutional Rights to Participation of Indigenous Peoples. In: Leal Filho, W., King, V., Borges de Lima, I. (eds) Indigenous Amazonia, Regional Development and Territorial Dynamics. The Latin American Studies Book Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29153-2_2
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