Abstract
This chapter explores the construct of stigma and the multiple ways it manifests itself in the work and life experiences of individuals with autism as well as their families. A formal diagnosis of autism may lead to a person experiencing stigma. Individuals who have not been formally diagnosed with ASD may also be stigmatized if they display characteristics of autism. The stigma of individuals with ASD is unique from the stigma felt by individuals with other disabilities. This is because autism is considered an invisible disability. The families of individuals with autism may also experience stigmatization. Individuals with autism may be stigmatized in many phases of their employment.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Ahmedani, B. K. (2011). Mental health stigma: Society, individuals, and the profession. Journal of Social Work Values and Ethics, 8(2), 41–416.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
Angermeyer, M. C., & Matschinger, H. (2003). The stigma of mental illness: Effects of labeling on public attitudes towards people with a mental disorder. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 108(4), 304–309.
Archer, C. (1985). Social deviance. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 743–804). New York: Random House.
Autism Speaks. (2016). https://www.gov.za/speeches/world-autism-awareness-day-2017-15-nov-2016-1401
Autism Speaks. (2018). Aggressive and challenging behaviors tool kit. https://www.autismspeaks.org/sites/default/files/2018-08/Challenging%20Behaviors%20Tool%20Kit.pdf
Baker, A. (2013, June 30). Working to combat the stigma of autism. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/01/nyregion/in-queens-an-effort-to-combat-autisms-stigma-among-korean-americans.html
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 17, 497–530.
Baumeister, R. F., & Tice, D. (1990). Anxiety and social exclusion. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9(2), 165–195.
Becker, G. S. (1981). A treatise on the family. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Benson, P. R., Fisher, G. A., Diana, A., Simon, L., Gamache, G., Tessler, R. C., et al. (1996). A state network of family support services: The Massachusetts family support demonstration project. Evaluation and Program Planning, 19(1), 27–39.
Birenbaum, A. (1970). On managing a courtesy stigma. Health and Social Behavior, 11, 196–206.
Bishop, S. L., Richler, J., Cain, A. C., & Lord, C. (2007). Predictors of perceived negative impact in mothers of children with autism spectrum disorder. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 112(6), 450–461.
Blacher, J., & McIntyre, L. L. (2006). Syndrome specificity and behavioral disorders in young adults with intellectual disability: Cultural differences in family impact. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 50(3), 184–198.
Bord, R. (1971). Rejection of the mentally ill: Continuities and further developments. Social Problems, 18, 496–509.
Brownlow, C., Werth, S., & Keefe, K. (2018). Autism spectrum disorder: Emotion work in the workplace. In S. Werth & C. Brownlow (Eds.), Work and identity (pp. 23–37). London: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73,936-6_3
Buss, D. M. (1990). The evolution of anxiety and social exclusion. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9(2), 196–201. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1990.9.2.196
Butler, R. C., & Gillis, J. M. (2011). The impact of labels and behaviors on the stigmatization of adults with Asperger’s disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(6), 741–749. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-1093-1099
Campbell, J. M. (2007). Middle school student’s response to the self-introduction of a student with autism. Remedial and Special Education, 28, 163–173.
Campbell, J. M., Ferguson, J. E., Herzinger, C. V., Jackson, J. N., & Marino, C. (2004). Combined descriptive and explanatory information improves peers’ perceptions of autism. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 25, 321–329.
Campbell, J. M., Ferguson, J. E., Herzinger, C. V., Jackson, J. N., & Marino, C. A. (2005). Peers’ attitudes toward autism differ across sociometric groups: An exploratory investigation. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 17, 283–300.
Cannella, Jr., A., Fraser, D. R., Lee, D. S., & Semadeni, M. B. (2002). Fight or flight: Managing stigma in executive careers. Cannella, A. A. Jr., Fraser, D. R., Lee, D. S., & Semadeni, M. B. 2002. Fight or flight: Managing stigma in executive careers. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Academy of Management, Denver, CO. I
Carter, A. S., Irwin, J., Skuban, E. M., Davis, N. O., & Briggs-Gowan, M. J. (2005). Social-emotional profiles of toddlers with autism. Unpublished manuscript.
Cassidy, S. (2012, May 14). Autistic adults bullied and not supported at work, poll shows. Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/autistic-adults-bullied-and-not-supported-at-work-poll-shows-7743517.html
Corrigan, P. W., & Watson, A. C. (2002). The paradox of self-stigma and mental illness. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 9, 35–53.
Crocker, J., & Lutsky, N. (1986). Stigma and the dynamics of social cognition. In S. C. Ainlay, G. Becker, & L. M. Coleman (Eds.), The dilemma of difference: A multidisciplinary view of stigma. New York: Plenum Press.
Crocker, J., Major, B., & Steele, C. (1998). Social stigma. In D.T. Gilbert, S.T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey. (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology. (2(4), pp. 504–553). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
DeMeyer, M. K. (1979). Parents and children in autism. Washington, DC: V.H. Winston & Sons.
DePape, A., & Lindsay, S. (2015). Parents’ experiences of caring for a child with autism spectrum disorder. Qualitative Health Research, 25(4), 569–583. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732314552455
Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5–18.
Dewey, M. (1991). Living with Asperger’s syndrome. In U. Frith (Ed.), Autism and Asperger syndrome (pp. 184–206). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Dimitropoulos, G., Carter, J., Schachter, R., & Woodside, D. B. (2008). Predictors of family functioning in careers of individuals with anorexia nervosa. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 41(8), 739–747. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.20562
Dovidio, J. F. (2001). On the nature of contemporary prejudice: The third wave. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 829–849.
Dovidio, J. F., Major, B., & Crocker, J. (2001). Stigma: Introduction and overview. In T. F. Heatherton, R. E. Kleck, M. R. Hebl, & J. G. Hull (Eds.), The social psychology of stigma (pp. 1–28). New York: Guilford.
DRC. (2018). DRC, 2018. https://www.disabilityrightsca.org/system/files/file-attachments/CM0401.pdf
Dumas, J. E., Wolf, L. C., Fisman, S. N., & Culligan, A. (1991). Parenting stress, child behavior problems, and dysphoria in parents of children with autism, down syndrome, behavior disorders, and normal development. Exceptionality, 2(2), 97–110.
EEOC. (2011). Comfort suites to pay $132,500 for disability discrimination against clerk with autism. https://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/newsroom/release/11-7-11a.cfm
Falk, G. (2001). Stigma: How we treat outsiders. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.
Farina, A., & Felner, R. D. (1973). Employment interviewer reactions to former mental patients. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 82(2), 268–272.
Farina, A., Felner, R. D., & Boudreau, L. (1973). Reactions of workers to male and female mental patient job applicants. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 41, 363–372.
Farrugia, D. (2009). Exploring stigma: Medical knowledge and the stigmatisation of parents of children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. Sociology of Health & Illness, 31(7), 1011–1027. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9566.2009.01174.x. Epub 2009 Jul 29.
Fernandez, M. C., & Arcia, E. (2004). Disruptive behaviors and maternal responsibility: A complex portrait of stigma, self-blame, and other reactions. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739986304267208
Fiske, S. T. (1998). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. In D. T. Gilbert & S. T. Fiske (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (pp. 357–411). Boston, MA: McGraw Hill.
Fiske, S. T., & Neuberg, S. L. (1990). A continuum of impression formation, from category-based to individuating processes: Influences of information and motivation on attention and interpretation. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 23, 1–73.
Goffman, E. (1961). Asylums. Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor.
Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Goffman, E. (1986). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Grandey, A. A. (2000). Emotion regulation in the workplace: A new way to conceptualize emotional labor. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(1), 59–100. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.5.1.95. PMID 10658889.
Gray, D. E. (1993). Perceptions of stigma: The parents of autistic children. Sociology of Health & Illness, 15, 102–120.
Gray, D. E. (2002). Everybody just freezes. Everybody is just embarrassed’: Felt and enacted stigma among parents of children with high functioning autism. Sociology of Health & Illness, 24, 734–749. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.00316
Green, S., Davis, C., Karshmer, E., Marsh, P., & Straight, B. (2005). Living stigma: The impact of labeling, stereotyping, separation, status loss, and discrimination in the lives of individuals with disabilities and their families. Sociological Inquiry, 75(2), 197–215.
Green, S. E. (2003). What do you mean ‘What’s wrong with her?’: Stigma and the lives of families of children with disabilities. Social Science & Medicine, 57, 1361–1374. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00511-7
Hamilton, D. L., Sherman, S. L., & Lickel, B. (1998). Perceiving social groups: Importance of the entitativity continuum. In C. Sedikides, J. schooler, & C. A. Insko (Eds.), Intergroup cognition and intergroup behavior (pp. 47–74). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Hayward, P., & Bright, J. A. (1997). Stigma and mental illness: A review and critique. Journal of Mental Health, 6, 345.
Hillman, J., Marvin, A., & Anderson, C. (2016). The experience and contributions of grandparents of children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Intergenerational Relationships, 14(2), 76–92.
Hillman, J. L., Wentzel, M. C., & Anderson, C. M. (2017). Grandparents’ experience of autism spectrum disorder: Identifying primary themes and needs. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47, 2957. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3211-4
Hochschild, A. (1983). The managed heart: Commercialization of human feeling. Berkeley, CA: University of California.
Hopper, S. (1981). Diabetes as a stigmatized condition: The case of low-income clinic patients in the United States. Social Science & Medicine. Medical Anthropology, 15B(1), 11–19.
Johnson, T. D., & Joshi, A. (2016). Dark clouds or silver linings? A stigma threat perspective on the implications of an autism diagnosis for workplace well-being. Journal of Applied Psychology, 101(3), 430–449.
Jones, E. E., Farina, A., Hastorf, A. H., Markus, H., Miller, D. T., & Scott, R. (1984). Social stigma: The psychology of marked relationships. New York: W. H. Freeman.
Kinear, S. H., Link, B. G., Ballan, M. S., & Fischbach, R. L. (2016). Understanding the experience of stigma for parents of children with autism spectrum disorder and the role stigma plays in families’ lives. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(3), 942–953. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2637-9
Kurzban, R., & Leary, M. R. (2001). Evolutionary origins of stigmatization: The functions of social exclusion. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 187–250.
Lewin, K. (1948). Resolving social conflicts. New York: Harper and Brothers.
Link, B. G., Cullen, F. T., Frank, J., & Wozniak, J. F. (1987). The social rejection of former mental patients: Understanding why labels matter. The American Journal of Sociology, 92, 1461–1500.
Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2001). Conceptualizing stigma. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 363–385.
Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2006). Stigma and its public health implications. Lancet, 367(9509), 528–529.
Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2007). Conceptualizing stigma. In E. J. Clarke & D. H. Kelly (Eds.), Deviant behavior (pp. 264–287). Macmillan: London.
Link, B. G., Struening, E., Neese-Todd, S., Asmussen, S., & Phelan, J. C. (2001). The consequences of stigma for the self-esteem of people with mental illnesses. Psychiatric Services, 52, 1621–1626.
Mak, W. W. S., & Chen, S. X. (2006). Face concern: Its role on stress-distress relationships among Chinese Americans. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 143–153.
Mak, W. W. S., & Cheung, R. Y. M. (2008). Affiliate stigma among caregivers of people with intellectual disability or mental illness. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 21, 532–545.
Mak, W. W. S., & Kwok, Y. T. Y. (2010). Internationalization of stigma for parents of children with autism spectrum disorder in Hong Kong. Social Science & Medicine, 70, 2045–2051. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.02.023
Margetts, J. K., LeCourteur, A., & Croom, S. (2006). Families in a state of flux: The experience of grandparents in autism spectrum disorder. Child: Care, Health and Development, 32, 565–574.
Merriam-Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/stigma
Middlebrook, D. L. (1996). Self-stigmatization in racially-mixed people: The social psychological consequences of being “squeezed” between cultures. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 57(1-B), 0764.
Milačić-Vidojević, I., Gligorović, M., & Dragojević, N. (2014). Tendency towards stigmatization of families of a person with autistic spectrum disorders. The International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 60(1), 63–70. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764012463298
Millen, N., & Walker, C. (2001). Overcoming the stigma of chronic illness: Strategies for normalization of a spoiled identity. Health Sociology Review, 10, 89–97.
Muhlbauer, S. (2002). Experience of stigma by families of mentally ill members. Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 8(3), 76–83. https://doi.org/10.1067/mpn.2002.125222
Myers, K. R. (2004). Coming out: Considering the closet of illness. The Journal of Medical Humanities, 25(4), 255–270.
National Autistic Society. (2012). Bullying and autism spectrum disorders: Guidance for teachers and other professionals. https://www.anti-bullyingalliance.org.uk/sites/default/files/field/attachment/ASDs-and-bulltubg-module-FINAL.pdf
Neely, B. H., & Hunter, S. T. (2014). In a discussion on invisible disabilities, let us not lose sight of employees on the autism spectrum. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 7(2), 274–277.
Neely-Barnes, S., Hall, R. J., & Graff, C. (2011). Parenting a child with an autism spectrum disorder: Public perceptions and parental conceptualizations. Journal of Family Social Work, 14(3), 208–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/10522158.2011.571539
Neuberg, S. L., Smith, D. M., & Asher, T. (2000). Why people stigmatize: Toward a biocultural framework. In T. F. Heatherton, R. E. Kleck, M. R. Hebl, & J. G. Hull (Eds.), The social psychology of stigma (pp. 31–61). New York: Guilford Press.
Olsson, M. B., & Hwang, C. P. (2001). Depression in mothers and fathers of children with intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 45(6), 535–543.
Ostman, M., & Kjellin, L. (2002). Stigma by association: Psychological factors in relatives of people with mental illness. British Journal of Psychiatry, 181, 494–498.
Penn, D. L., Kohlmaier, J. R., & Corrigan, P. W. (2000). Interpersonal factors contributing to the stigma of schizophrenia: Social skills, perceived attractiveness, and symptoms. Schizophrenia Research, 45(1–2), 37–45.
Phillips, D. L. (1964). Rejection of the mentally ill. American Sociological Review, 19, 679–687.
Pugliesi, K. L. (1987). Deviation in emotion and the labeling of mental illness. Deviant Behavior, 8(1), 79–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.1987.9967733
Quittner, A. L., DiGirolamo, A. M., Michel, M., & Eigen, H. (1992). Parental response to cystic fibrosis: A contextual analysis of the diagnosis phase. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 17(6), 683–704.
Read, J., & Harré, N. (2001). The role of biological and genetic causal beliefs in the stigmatisation of “mental patients”. Journal of Mental Health, 10(2), 223–235.
Rush, L. L. (1998). Affective reactions to multiple social stigmas. The Journal of Social Psychology, 138, 421–431.
Russell, G., & Norwich, B. (2012). Dilemmas, diagnosis and de-stigmatization: Parental perspectives on the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17(2), 229–245.
Sanders, J. L., & Morgan, S. B. (1997). Family stress and adjustment as perceived by parents of children with autism or down syndrome: Implications for intervention. Child and Family Behavior Therapy, 19(4), 15–32. https://doi.org/10.1300/J019v19n04_02
Sarris, M. (2015). The stigma of autism: When all eyes are upon you. Interactive Autism Network. https://iancommunity.org/ssc/autism-stigma.
Scambler, G., & Hopkins, A. (1986). Being epileptic: Coming to terms with stigma. Sociology of Health & Illness, 8, 26–43.
Schneider, J. W., & Conrad, P. (1980). In the closet with epilepsy, stigma potential and information control. Social Problems, 28, 32–44.
Shtayermann, O. (2007). Peer victimization in adolescents and young adults diagnosed with Asperger syndrome: A link to depressive symptomatology, anxiety symptomatology, and suicidal ideation. Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing, 30, 87–107.
Shtayermman, O. (2009). An exploratory study of the stigma associated with a diagnosis of Asperger’s Syndrome: The mental health impact on the adolescents and young adults diagnosed with a disability with a social nature. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 19, 298–313.
Sidanius, J., & Pratto, F. (1999). Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression system. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Stafford, M. C., & Scott, R. R. (1986). Stigma deviance and social control: Some conceptual issues. In S. C. Ainlay, G. Becker, & L. M. Coleman (Eds.), The dilemma of difference. New York: Plenum.
Stefan, S. (2001). Unequal rights: Discrimination against people with mental disabilities and the Americans with Disabilities Act. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Swaim, K. F., & Morgan, S. B. (2001). Children’s attitudes and behavioral intentions toward a peer with autistic behaviors: Does a brief educational intervention have an effect? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(2), 195–205.
Thomas, S. V., & Nair, A. (2011). Confronting the stigma of epilepsy. Annals of Indian Academy of Neurology, 14(3), 158–163.
Tomanik, S., Harris, G. E., & Hawkins, J. (2004). The relationship between behaviours exhibited by children with autism and maternal stress. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 29(1), 16–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668250410001662892
Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (1988). Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture, Part I. Theoretical considerations. Ethology and Sociobiology, 10, 29–49. Tooby & Cosmides.
Voysey, M. (1972). Impression management by parents with disabled children. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 13(1), 80–89. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136975
Werner, S., & Shulman, C. (2013). Subjective well-being among family caregivers of individuals with developmental disabilities: The role of affiliate stigma and psychosocial moderating variables. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34(11), 4103–4114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2013.08.029. Epub 2013 Sep 19.
Werth, S. (2011). Stigma, stress, and emotional labour: Experiences of women with chronic illness at work. In 25th congress of the association of industrial relations academics in Australia and New Zealand, Auckland, 4–6 February.
West, P. (1986). The social meaning of epilepsy: Stigma as a potential explanation for psychopathology in children. In S. Whitman & B. P. Hermami (Eds.), Psychopathology in Epilepsy. New York: Oxford University Press.
Zajicek, A. M., & Koski, P. R. (2003). Strategies of resistance to stigmatization among white middle class singles. Sociological Spectrum, 23(3), 377–403. https://doi.org/10.1080/02732170309203
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Hurley-Hanson, A.E., Giannantonio, C.M., Griffiths, A.J. (2020). The Stigma of Autism. In: Autism in the Workplace. Palgrave Explorations in Workplace Stigma. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29049-8_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29049-8_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-29048-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-29049-8
eBook Packages: Business and ManagementBusiness and Management (R0)