Simplifying the Complexity of Social-ecological Systems with Conceptual Models

Abstract

If you need to understand a social-ecological problem and an expert tells you “it is too complex,” please go with someone who knows how to generate conceptual models. Conceptual models serve to simplify a problem, to help in research activities, and to develop management strategies. Furthermore, they are transdisciplinary tools that help to communicate different social actors and experts from different disciplines. The main objective of this chapter is to discuss conceptual modeling from a social-ecological perspective.

Annex I

Phases of the social-ecological system (SES)/Ecosystem services (ES) adaptive model for Chiloé Island. All cited bibliographic references are listed at the end of this annex. R_S-E social-ecological resilience, R_S social resilience and R_E ecological resilience.

r phase (i) (1825–1960): rapid growth, the potential of both subsystems increases while their connectivity is low.

R_S-E: Moderate R_S and high R_E. Human activities changed after the island was incorporated to the Chilean territory with more options and a growing trend of the connectivity within the SSE. Ecosystem services were used mostly as provisioning for subsistence.

In 1850 agriculture decreases in intensity, being replaced by industrial activities (e.g. sea lion hunting and native wood cutting) in the south of the island (Cárdenas and Villagrán 2005). In 1900 some agricultural activities restart, positioning the island as the main producer of potatoes by the year 1950.

Ω phase (i) (1960–1967): collapse, where exogenous and endogenous perturbations generate crises within the SES.

R_S-E: Low. Both subsystems do not show adaptive capabilities after the 1960 mega earthquake. There is an increase in human emigration and the ecological subsystem changes after the sinking of coastal areas, generating an increase in coastal wetlands and a social-ecological crisis (Urbina 1996; Andrade 2017).

α phase (1967–1974): reorganization, after the perturbation (mega earthquake) several innovations start, moving the SES to a new adaptive cycle.

R_S-E: high for both subsystems. There is a diversification of economic activities and uses of ecosystem services. One of the main social products is the generation of mutual cooperation networks, cooperatives and new extractive activities both in terrestrial and marine ecosystems (Guajardo 1970; Altieri and Rojas 1999).

r phase (ii) (1974–1996): rapid growth, the potential of both subsystems is increased but with low connectivity.

R_S-E: Moderate R_S and high R_E. Human activities adjust to re-organization processes and there is an increase in the use of ecosystem services. This period shows an increase in human capital (professionals and technicians) required by the newly developing industries (Zanlungo et al. 2015). However, union social capital decreases due to the military dictatorship in Chile (1973–1990). One example is the end of the use of fishing pens (corrales de pesca in Spanish), a tradition in Chiloé (Ramírez et al. 2009). Also, during this period, artisan fishermen start organizing in communities and cooperatives as a consequence of the general law of fisheries and aquaculture (Marín and Gelcich 2012). In 1980 there is a sudden increase in economic resources due to the expansion of salmon farming on the island (Fløysand et al. 2010). Later, during the 1990s, diverse pathologies derived from salmon farming started appearing, generating the need to use antibiotics to maintain the fish population.

K phase (1996–2007): conservation, characterized by the accumulation of resources, increase in connectivity but also the monopoly of human activities leading toward an increase in vulnerability.

R_S-E: moderate R_E and low R_S. The SES becomes rigid, where the exportation of marine products becomes the social-economic basis of local society. The coastal ecosystem starts showing an increase of harmful algal blooms such as Alexandrium catenella during 2002 and 2006 (Molinet et al. 2017). Terrestrial ecosystems start changing due to the modification of the Chilean law regarding forestry (D.L. 701/1998) and the exploitation of mosses, Sphagnum spp. (Zegers et al. 2006). Finally, the island starts receiving tourists due to the declaration of the island’s churches as world heritage sites by UNESCO (Ortiz et al. 2014).

Ω phase (ii) (2007–?): collapse, due to the outbreak of the Infectious Salmon Anemia (ISA) virus and recurrent harmful algal blooms (NCEI 2018).

R_S-E: low. This collapse phase, generated by a sanitary crisis, revealed a low social and ecological resilience, triggering social protests locally known as “mayo Chilote” (Chilote’s may; Vargas 2018). The Chilean State resolves to provide subsidies to local people, decreasing, even more, their adaptive capabilities. Finally, during the year 2015 FAO expresses its concern about the low recruitment in mussel’s banks in Chiloé coastal waters.