Abstract
To study the Persian leopard potential habitats, to assess conservation needs and priorities, and also to conduct relative conservation and management programs, considering extensive variability of natural and socioeconomic characteristics across the leopard range in Iran is essential. Iran is a vast country with wide range of the Persian leopard across almost all provinces. Failing to closely concentrate on the notable variability of aforementioned characteristics in each part of the leopard range across the country may negatively affect the species distribution modelling practices as well as many other research, conservation, and management programs. Accordingly, this chapter is dedicated to a novel classification addressing the leopard putative range in Iran for further relative programs. Subsequently, a total of nine natural and human variables including climate, topography, dry condition, vegetation, and elevation, also protected areas, human population, land use, and human poverty index were used to classify the area into the groups with the most similarities. This is conducted by the means of extracting inherent clusters in the dataset of aforementioned variables in all provinces without prior tagging of the cases. Afterwards, topography and climatology in each region are briefly discussed. Conducting the large scale research, conservation, and management programs on a regional basis as introduced in this chapter is recommended not only for the leopard, but also for other wide ranging species in Iran when the program is affected by the variability of natural and socioeconomic characteristics.
Keywords
1 Introduction
Previous studies specify that majority of the leopard areas are in the weather range of about 0–20 days/year of ice cover, temperature of 13–18 °C, and more than 200 mm of precipitation per year (Sanei & Zakaria, 2008). Leopard areas in Iran are mostly confined to the mountainous regions (Joslin, 1990; Sanei, 2007; Sanei & Zakaria, 2011c) while high altitude and slope of about 20–70% have been also documented as significant factors in determining leopard habitat suitability (Omidi, Kaboli, Karami, Mahini, & Kiabi, 2010; Mobargha, 2006). Sanei et al. (2016) revealed that protection status of the areas (i.e. PA, NP, WR, non-protected), number of the years under protection, and size of the PAs (protected areas) are significant factors affecting number of wild goats, which in the majority of habitats is a principle determinant for leopard occurrence (Omidi et al., 2010; Sanei, Zakaria, Yusof, & Roslan, 2011; Taghdisi et al., 2013). Furthermore, the main population of the Persian leopard is known to inhabit in Iran while trans-boundary movements could support presence and persistence of this subspecies in neighbouring countries in North, East, and West of Iran (Khorozyan & Abramov, 2007; Kiabi, Dareshouri, Ghaemi, & Jahanshahi, 2002; Sanei et al., 2016; Stein et al., 2016). The leopard has been recorded to be present in all provinces of Iran excluding Hamedan with documented non-detection of more than three decades (Sanei, 2007; Sanei & Zakaria, 2011c). However, Hamedan Province has trans-boundary leopard habitats continuing from the neighbouring provinces as well as available food resources (Sanei et al., 2016).
The idea behind classification of provinces into environmentally significant different regions is about the fact that there is a considerable variation in numerous relative factors between provinces such as ecosystem type, climate, fauna and flora as well as human factors such as human poverty index and population density. As an example, while Northern Iran located by the Caspian Sea is covered by dense forests and receives average annual rainfall of 1200–1300 mm, south westernmost of Iran with the maximum temperature reaching to 52 °C is covered with plains (Bobek, 2005; Faraj Zadeh, 2005). Also, in terms of human factors, while Tehran, Gilan, and Mazandaran Provinces have population relative density up to 713 km2, South Khorasan and Sistan and Balouchestan Provinces have population relative density of 7 and 13 km2 (Estelaji & Shariat Panahi, 2013).
2 Classification of Regions According to the Natural and Socioeconomic Factors
Relevant literatures were reviewed to select the human and natural variables that have confirmed impact to the species. Accordingly, a total of five natural and four human variables were selected on the basis of their impact on species presence, movement, and persistence (e.g. Forrest et al., 2012; Mobargha, 2006; Sanei & Zakaria, 2011a, 2011b, 2011c, 2011d; Verdade, Lyra-Jorge, & Piña, 2014). The natural variables include climate, topography, dry condition, vegetation, and elevation, and the human variables include protected areas (i.e. number and area of PAs and protection level), human population, and land use. Human poverty index was also added to the set of chosen variables because of its indirect effects on species presence through poaching of leopards and their prey particularly in rural and human dominated areas (Ingram, 2012; Tilson & Nyhus, 2010). Relative information from national official statistics and census were used to categorize each province in a class of high (three marks), medium (2), or low suitability (1) in relation to each variable. Table 3.1 illustrates the criteria of each category and the references for classifications of the variables into three groups of suitability. For instance, elevation of higher than 600 m above sea level is considered as the most suitable elevation ranking as proposed by previous literature, also according to the definition of topographical features (e.g. mountains and hills) and variability of altitude range in various provinces (Mobargha, 2006; Omidi et al., 2010; Sanei & Zakaria, 2011c; Sanei et al., 2016; Sanei, Gordmardi, Jafari, Absalan, & Zakaria, 2013; Whittow, 1984). Thus, the highest score of 3 was assigned to this category. Yet, according to the same literature, elevation of less than 200 m above sea level was given the lowest suitability score of 1.
Subsequently, scores related to all variables in a province were summed up and an overall assigned value to each province was used for extracting inherent clusters in the dataset without prior tagging of the cases. Therefore, the hierarchical clustering method of within-groups average linkage was used to group each two clusters which then, produced a cluster with the smallest average distance between the cases (see also Mooi & Sarstedt, 2011).
The provinces with the same strata number are determined to have more similarities comparing to those in other clusters. Figure 3.1 shows more details regarding the distances between the clusters and cases. Thus, this classification provided an insight to the similarities and dissimilarities of the provinces on the basis of previously assigned values to the variables. As such, those ranked in a same cluster have the most similarities while those located in the clusters further than each other have less similarity. For instance, provinces of North Khorasan, South Khorasan, and Razavi Khorasan, Semnan and Tehran are classified in a same cluster while they are sharing common borders (Table 3.2). However, Kordestan Province has also similarities to these provinces, but it is not neighbour to the previous ones. Since this classification is being done for the purpose of potential distribution modelling as well as other relative conservation and management implications , thus neighbouring provinces with similar conditions need to be assigned to the same groups. Therefore, while North Khorasan, South Khorasan, and Razavi Khorasan, Semnan and Tehran Provinces can be assigned to a same group, Kordestan Province should be assigned to a set of neighbouring provinces with the most similarities. In this way, Kordestan can be grouped with Ghazvin and Zanjan (also classified in group 1) as well as Markazi and Ardebil in the nearest clusters (see Fig. 3.1).
A total of five groups each consisted of the most similar neighbouring provinces were classified that eventually cover the entire leopard historical and current range. Subsequently, one way ANOVA was used to test significant dissimilarities of five groups of neighbouring closely ranked provinces (P = 0.03). Here, dependent variables are the overall suitability scores assigned to each region after summing up all the provincial scores in a proposed region. Therefore, 31 provinces of Iran are classified into five main regions of northeast (region 1), southeast and central Iran (region 2), southwest (region 3), northwest (region 4), and North (region 5) of Iran (Fig. 3.2).
In this figure, the hierarchical clustering of provinces that is shown in Fig. 3.1 and Table 3.2 is used to assign the most similar neighbouring provinces to the same regions. In fact Fig. 3.1 and Table 3.2 show the raw outcomes of the hierarchical clustering that are not demonstrating the final classification of the provinces. This is due to the fact that neighbouring similarities are the main concern for extracting the regions across the leopard range in the country. Consequently, differences among the provinces classified in each region comparing to those assigned to other regions with respect to the selected natural and human variables of dry condition, climate, elevation, topography, vegetation, protected areas, poverty index, human population, and land use are significant (P = 0.03). Numbering of provinces in each region according to Fig. 3.2 includes:
Region 1: (1) North Khorasan, (2) Razavi Khorasan, (3) South Khorasan, (4) Semnan, (5) Tehran, (6) Ghom, (7) Alborz; Region 2: (27) Esfahan, (28) Yazd, (29) Kerman, (30) Sistan and Balouchestan, (31) Hormozgan; Region 3: (20) Ilam, (21) Lorestan, (22) Khuzestan, (23) Chahar Mahal and Bakhtiari, (24) Kohgiluyeh and Boyer Ahmad, (25) Boushehr, (26) Fars; Region 4: (11) Markazi, (12) Ghazvin, (13) Zanjan, (14) Ardebil, (15) East Azarbaijan, (16) West Azarbaijan, (17) Kordestan, (18) Hamedan, (19) Kermanshah; Region 5: (8) Golestan, (9) Gilan, (10) Mazandaran
3 Introduction to the Study Regions
A total of five main environmentally significant dissimilar regions each including groups of neighbouring provinces were classified in the earlier section (see Sect. 3.2). To provide a better understanding to the research findings elaborated in the next chapters, general characteristics of each region is introduced in this section. Figure 3.3 shows the location of Iran and neighbouring countries with trans-boundary habitats in the southwest Asia. Figure 3.4 shows the topography map of the country.
3.1 Region 1
This region includes provinces of North Khorasan, Razavi Khorasan, South Khorasan, Semnan, Tehran, Alborz and Ghom.
3.1.1 Location and Topography
Figures 3.5 and 3.6 show the elevation structure and map of the land use/land cover in region 1, respectively. In general, this region is mostly covered by the elevated mountainous chains of Alborz located in the northernmost part of the country and extends along the Alborz chains westwards while influenced by the deserts located in the central Iran extending from region 2 to the Semnan and South Khorasan Provinces (see also Fig. 3.4; National Geographical Organization of Iran, 2011). Binalud mountain range running from Razavi Khorasan westwards to the southeast of the Caspian Sea and the Aladagh Mnts located in North Khorasan Province are among other mountainous areas located in this region (The Gazetteer of Mountains in the I. R. of Iran, 2006). Kopet Dag mountains in the northernmost part of the region extend to the neighbouring country of Turkmenistan. Other trans-boundary habitats with previous leopard records (see also Kiabi et al., 2002; Sanei, 2007; Sanei et al., 2016) are located in the North (bordering with Turkmenistan) and the east (extending to Afghanistan).
In general, North, Razavi, and South Khorasan Provinces which were once contained within the great Khorasan Province covering a total area of 335,313 km2 (the years earlier than 2004) can be divided into two parts of the North and the south in terms of landscapes and natural conditions. The north side is generally mountainous (Fig. 3.5), while it is covered with rich and fertile plains in the valleys and the low lands. Due to the heavy rain falls, sufficient conditions are provided for livestock and agricultural activities. Southern part is consisting of broad plains with low hills. Receiving small amount of rain per year, this area contains poor vegetation cover. Besides, the soil is not good enough for agriculture activities (see also Bannayan et al., 2009; Torabi & Halabian, 2015).
Located adjacent to Tehran, the capital city of Iran, habitats in the neighbouring provinces, e.g. Ghom and Alborz Provinces, are affected by intensive developments, destructions, and consequences of the human population growth (Eskandari Dameneh, Borjib, Hhosravi, & Salajegheh, 2016; Jokar Arsanjani, 2011). Mountainous areas of above 1500 m ASL located in the south, southwest, and the west of Ghom Province are among the mountains of central Iran. However, plains around two salt lakes, namely Daryacheh-e-Namak (salt lake) and Hoz-e-Soltan (Sultan Pond), extend to the plains located in the central and northeast of the province. Southern amplitudes of the Alborz mountains reach to the Semnan Province where the height gradually decreases from North to South, and leading to the Kavir-e-Namak (i.e. Salt Desert).
3.1.2 Climate
Generally the climate in the eastern part of this region, i.e. North, Razavi, and South Khorasan Provinces, can be divided into four classes (see also Silakhori & Arami, 2014). This is including (1) mountainous cold (e.g. in Ala Dagh and Binalud Heights), (2) mountainous temperate (e.g. in cities of Bojnourd, Quchan, Shirvan, and Southern parts of Binalud Mnts, Kopet Dag Heights, Hezar Masjed Mnts and a part of Mashhad City), (3) mild semi-desert (foothills climate) as well as (4) hot and dry desert climate types.
Mild semi-desert is mostly seen in the foothills and its most important feature is changing of temperature compare to the surrounding areas (e.g. Ghayenat). Hot and dry desert climate is mostly observed in the southern parts of the region. The minimum temperature in this area (i.e. North, Razavi, and South Khorasan Provinces) is −28 °C, while the maximum temperature is about 45.5 °C in a city called Sabzevar with average annual rainfall of 218.55 mm (Iran Meteorological Organization, 2017; Samadi, Ehteramian, & Sari Sarraf, 2011). In the most western parts of region 1, where provinces of Terhan and Alborz located by southern side of the Alborz mountain chains, three different climatic features are recognized (see also Fanni, Hosayni, Afsharmanesh, Nezammahalleh, & Rastegar, 2013):
(1) Climate in the northern heights: the climate of the amplitudes of the southern central Alborz heights, at high altitude above 3000 m is humid or semi-humid and cold, while the winters are very cold and long, e.g. including mountains of Damavand and Tochal (see also Mousaei Sanjerehei, 2014). (2) Climate in the height of 2000 –3000 meters ASL is semi-humid and cold with relatively long winters (including mountains of Ab-Ali, Firuzkooh, Damavand, Galanduk, Amir Kabir Dam, as well as Taleghan Valley). The annual temperature in this area is 10–15 °C (Iran Meteorological Organization, 2017). (3) Areas with semi-arid and arid climates, short winters and hot summers, located in the ranges with elevation of lower than 200 m ASL. Thus, Tehran weather in mountainous regions is a temperate climate type and semi-desert climate is observed in plains. While Alborz mountains located in northern Tehran modify the weather, desert of Kavir located at the south of Tehran causes heat and dry weather in the region (see also Hyde, 2008). Similarly, areas around the Hoze Soltan, a salt lake in Ghom Province, receive even less than 100 mm rainfall annually while the situation is slightly better at Ghom city with 145 mm/year of rainfall and the maximum daily temperature of 34.5 °C in June and minimum daily temperature of 3.6 °C in December. In general, climate in Ghom Province is arid with annual rainfall of about 150 mm (see also Abai et al., 2016; Abtahi and Safe, 2012; Naseri, 2008).
Whereas the Kavir Desert is located in the southern part of region 1, i.e. in Semnan Province, the rate of rainfall is more in the mountainous places of the northern parts, particularly in spring, and sometimes leading to floods (see also Comprehensive Study of Semnan Environment, 1993; Soltani et al., 2016).
3.2 Region 2
This region covers south-easternmost and central Iran including provinces of Esfahan, Kerman, Sistan and Balouchestan, Yazd, and Hormozgan.
3.2.1 Location and Topography
West of the region 2 is covered by eastern hillsides of the Zagros mountainous chains (running from northwest to the south of the country). Four provinces of Esfahan, Kerman, Sistan and Balouchestan, and Yazd included in this region are the vastest provinces of Iran with about 105,263 km2, 180,726 km2, 187,502 km2, and 72,156 km2, relatively (National Geographical Organization of Iran, 2011). While height of the Zagros chains gradually decreases from west to east (Fig. 3.7), highlands in the west of Kerman province are attached to the central mountains of Iran. These elevated mountainous areas started from volcanic mountains of Azarbaijan and extends to Sistan and Balouchestan, while the extension is cut off several times by the local lowlands and the desert areas. Bashagerd Mountains, located in the extension of Zagros Mountains and in the southern of Kahnouj Township in Kerman Province, separate this area from Hormozgan Province in southern boundaries of region 2 (The Gazetteer of Mountains in the I. R. of Iran, 2006).
The easternmost part of the region 2 is consisted of Sistan and Balouchestan Province with trans-boundary habitats which extends to two countries of Pakistan and Afghanistan (Fig. 3.3). While several mountainous areas and ranges, e.g. Khajeh Mnts, Taftan Mnts, Bazman Mnts, Birk Mnts, and Palang Kuh (i.e. Leopard Mountain), together with hills and mounds are distributed widely in the eastern parts of the region 2, i.e. across the Sistan and Balouchestan Province, extensive plains, e.g. Dasht-e Loot (Loot Desert), Hamoon and Jazmurian, are found in the western parts of the province (Comprehensive study of Sistan and Balouchestan Environment, 1993). Yet, forests in this province include wild olive forests of Saravan, forests of Nikshahr (located in the Pozak Heights of this township), a forest region called Shileh (located in the Zabol Township), as well as mangrove forests by the shorelines of the Oman Sea (Fig. 3.8; Operation Report of the Natural Environment Office of the Zahedan DoE, 2000). While almost 13.7% of the area in central Iran plateau, in Yazd Province, is covered by deserts, altitudes ranging from about 850 m ASL in Rig Zarin Desert to 4055 m ASL in Shir Kuh (i.e. the lion Mountain) indicate variety of landscapes, e.g. mountains, hills, plains, salt deserts, and sand hills (National Geographical Organization of Iran, 2011). Mountains of Hormozgan Province are the southern boundary of Zagros chains with Geno and Fareghan MTS as the highest peaks in this province. South and southeast of region 2 in Sistan and Balouchestan and Hormozgan Provinces reaches the shorelines of Oman Sea and the Persian Gulf (Comprehensive study of Hormozgan Environment, 1993).
3.2.2 Climate
Central plateau of Iran consisting a main part of region 2 receives only small amount of rain annually and it is affected by desert and hot-dry climates. However, west part of the region which is affected by Zagros chains has cold climate while southern parts, in Kerman, Sistan and Balouchestan and Hormozgan Provinces are affected by warm-humid climate.
Still there are much variations in weather conditions in local scale: e.g. mild semi-desert with 30–100 mm/year rain in foothills and surrounding areas of Gavkhoni Wetland, dry with 100–150 mm/year rain in central areas of the province, semi-arid climate with average annual rain of 150–300 mm/year in townships of Khansar and Golpayegan, temperate climates with 300–450 mm/year rain in parts of Semirom Township and semi-humid climate with more rainfall (i.e. 450–1000 mm of rain per year) in Bazoft, Chahar Mahal and Bakhtiari Province (Comprehensive Study of Esfahan Environment, 1993). While, average maximum and minimum temperatures in Esfahan Province is 16.2–28.2 °C and 6.3–1.1 °C, relatively (Nasri & Modarres, 2009), the climate in more eastern parts such as Rig Zarin desert in Yazd Province is semi-desert with less than average annual rain of 30 mm/year (Iran Meteorological Organization, 2017). In Kerman Province, precipitation is very low starting from November which continues to the following June. The average maximum and minimum temperatures are in July and February, with dry and temperate climate in North, northwest, and central areas of the province (see also Karimi-Googhari, 2011). Yet, high altitudes and small plateaus between them in eastern part of the region, i.e. in Sistan and Balouchestan Province, are affected by semi-desert climate with cold winters (National Geographical Organization of Iran, 2011). Absolute maximum temperature in Zabol, Saravan, Iranshahr, and Zahedan is more than 40 °C, while it may reach to 51 °C in Iranshahr Township. The coldest months of the year in Zahedan and Iranshahr townships are December and January. But the coldest months in Saravan Township is December, while it is January in Zabol (Iran Meteorological Organization, 2017). The amount of precipitation in the area is 120 mm/year while areas in Zabol Township have suffered the most damage from long term dry condition (Comprehensive Study of Sistan and Balouchestan Environment, 1993). Climate variations in Yazd Province includes cold and dry weather in mountainous regions, dry and desert climates in semi-mountainous areas, warm and dry weather with 250 mm/year rainfall in desert or plain areas, arid steppe areas with 100 mm/year rainfall, and arid desert areas with 50 mm/year of rain. Absolute maximum temperature in Yazd Province is 43 °C in July, while the absolute minimum temperature is −7.2 °C in January (see also Taghizadeh-Mehjardi, Mahmoodi, & Heidari, 2009).
3.3 Region 3
This region includes provinces of Kermanshah, Lorestan, Chahar Mahal and Bakhtiari, Ilam, Kohgiluyeh and Boyer Ahmad, Boushehr, and Khuzestan.
3.3.1 Location and Topography
This region is mainly conformed to the Zagros mountainous chains (running from northwest to the south of Iran; Fig. 3.9). While 12 million ha of landscapes in Iran is covered with forests, five million ha of that is located in the Zagros Mnts (Fig. 3.10; Shabanian, Soheili, & Haidari, 2013) where Quercus infectoria, Q. libani, and Q. persica are found in the northern side (which extend to region 4 in Kordestan Province) and Q. persica is in the southern parts (Haidari & Rezaei, 2013; Khosravi, Namiranian, Ghazanfari, & Shirvani, 2012). Yet, dependence of local communities to these forests as a source of fodder for livestock, firewood, and other wood consumptions as well as traditional forestry has a long history in this area (Ghazanfari, Namiranian, Sobhani, & Mohajer, 2004; Valipour, Namiraninan, Etemad, & Ghazanfari, 2009).
Mountains, accompanied with deep valleys, are extended from the northwest to the south of Lorestan Province, and occasionally encompass some alluvial valleys and small plains nearby (see also Hasanpori, Tavili, & Javadi, 2013). Kermanshah and Ilam Provinces at the west of Zagros mountainous chains contain trans-boundary habitats across their common borders with the neighbouring country of Iraq. While vast mountainous areas in the southern side of the Zagros mountainous chains spread over Fars Province, mountainous lands lose the heights gradually (Fig. 3.9). As a result, variation in fauna and flora is obvious accordingly (e.g. Dolatkhahi, Yousofi, Baghernejad, & Dolatkhahi, 2010; Mirzaei & Yazdani, 1992; Soltanzadeh, Saghaei, & Ostovan, 2015). Even though the south-westernmost part of Iran, i.e. in Khuzestan Province, is surrounded by the Zagros Mnts in the northern and eastern sides, height decreases towards the southwest, so the plains starts from south of Dezful, Masjed Soleiman, Ramhormoz, and Behbahan townships and continues to the Persian Gulf seashore and the Arvand Rood, i.e. Arvand River (Dinarvand & Sharifi, 2009).
3.3.2 Climate
In general, similar to the topography, climate is also much variable in this region from cold to hot-dry and then, hot-humid. Reaching to the Persian Gulf in the south, the coastal areas have hot and humid climate in Boushehr Province. However, mountainous areas have hot and dry weather and the climate in the winter is generally temperate (Asghari & Vafaei, 2015; Iran Meteorological Organization, 2017). Northwards, i.e. south and southeast of Fars Province, the climate during winter is moderate but very hot in the summer. Then, in northern parts of the province where southern heights of the Zagros mountainous chains are located, the climate changes to cold winter with snow and temperate in summer. Yet, among these two regions in the central areas of the province, rainy mild winter with hot summers is observed (see also Soufi, 2004). South-westernmost of the region 3 with average annual temperature of 31.2 °C and the maximum temperature reaching to 52 °C, in Khuzestan Province, contains semi-desert and semi-arid climates (Gandomkar & Azhdary Mamooreh, 2015). Along Zagros mountainous chain, still climate is much variable. As such, in Lorestan Province, close to region 4, there is a severe cold snowy and stormy winter in northern parts while the weather in Southern parts is rainy and pleasant (see also Salehvnd, Gandomkar, Fatahi, & Azizi, 2016). In Chahar Mahal and Bakhtiari, the average annual precipitation is 1600 mm in Zard Kuh while the snow height reaches to 12 meters (Comprehensive Study of Chahar Mahal and Bakhtiari Environment, 1993). In Ilam Province, absolute maximum temperature is 52 °C while the absolute minimum is −27/5 °C. Elevated areas and high mountains of Kabir Kuh (i.e. Great Mountain) have a cold temperature and the minimum temperature reaches to −14 °C (Comprehensive Study of Ilam Environment, 1993). Yet, Kohgiluyeh and Boyer Ahmad Province with 16,264 km2 area has three different climatic zones including (1) tropical in south and west of the province, (2) moderately cold in high altitude ranges, and (3) extreme cold in the peaks of the mountains. The minimum temperature reaches −5 °C in February, while the maximum temperature is 35.6 °C in August (Comprehensive Study of Kohgiluyeh and Boyer Ahmad Environment, 1993).
3.4 Region 4
This region includes provinces of Ardebil , East Azerbaijan, Ghazvin, Hamedan, Kermanshah, Kordestan, Markazi, West Azerbaijan, and Zanjan. Caucasus ecoregion in Iran is mainly located in this region.
3.4.1 Location and Topography
Running along the south of the Caspian Sea, Talesh Mnts continue across southeast of the Azerbaijan Republic to the Ardebil Province in north westernmost of region 4 and to the Gilan Province located in region 5 (i.e. northern Iran). Also, Moghan plateau, in southwest of the Caspian Sea and South of the lesser Caucasus Mnts is divided by Aras River to two parts which are located in the Ardebil Province in one side and the Azerbaijan Republic in the other side. Yet, the lesser Caucasus Mnts which extended across Georgia, Turkey, Armenia, and Azerbaijan also continue into the northwest of Iran (Amir-Ahmadian, 2002; National Geographical Organization of Iran, 2011). Sabalan, Ghareh Dagh, Arasbaran, and Ghafelan Kouh are among the well-known heights of this area.
In general, mountainous habitats (Fig. 3.11) in western parts of the region 4 eventually connect the Hyrcanian forests in North to the trans-boundary habitats where they extend to the neighbouring countries of Azerbaijan and Armenia Republics (Figs. 3.3 and 3.12). While significant portion of the Hamedan Province with a total area of 19,368 km2 is covered by mountains (e.g. Alvand Mountain with height of 3574 m above sea level) and two protected areas of Lashgardar and Khangarmz are also located in the mountains of this province, non-detection of the leopard for more than 30 years in this area could be a sign of local extinction (Sanei, 2007). Zagros mountainous ranges which are extended from region 4 to south of Iran have also emerged as a series of parallel mountains within the Kermanshah Province, while the mountainous plains are formed in the intermediates. Yet, forests located in the Western parts of the Kordestan Province are attached to the forests of Kermanshah Province, as well as West Azarbaijan Province, while the forests also extend to the neighbouring country of Iraq (Fig. 3.12; see also Bobek, 2005).
3.4.2 Climate
Containing high altitude mountains with cold weather, northwest of Iran after the region by the Caspian Sea (region 5) has the most average number of days (i.e. 78 days) with precipitation (Faraj Zadeh, 2005). As such, the average annual rainfall in West Azarbaijan Province is 300–400 mm/year (National Geographical Organization of Iran, 2000). However, the plains and foothills in Ardebil, Meshkin-Shahr, and Khalkhal townships receive the maximum rainfall of 350 mm/year with the minimum temperature reaching to −30 °C. Also, the highest temperature of mountainous areas of Sabalan, as well as Baghru, with the cold mountainous climate is 20 °C (Molavi-Arabshahi, Arpe, & Leroy, 2015; Shirvani, 2017).
In general, temperature variation could be much unexpected in this region. As an illustration, temperature variation in Hezarkanian habitat in Kordestan Province between the coldest temperatures and the hottest months of the year may reaches to 79 °C (The Gazetteer of Mountains in the I. R. of Iran, 2006). In Zanjan Province, spring and autumn seasons are short while winter starts with continuous snow falls in early December which usually continues until late April (see also Asakereh & Razmi, 2012; Farajzadeh, 2003; Farajzadeh & Matzarakis, 2009). Climate of the Kermanshah Province which is affected by the Zagros mountainous ranges varies from temperate winters and hot dry summers to the cold winters and summers, semi-arid climate, and cold steppe, as well as hot semi-arid steppe climate (Karam, Ranjbar, Eftekhari, & Yaghoob, 2014; Mirmousavi, Gharoosi, & Khaefi, 2014). Yet, the weather of the north mountainous region of Ghazvin Province is cold, with snowy winters, while the summers are temperate. However, in the plains of the province cold winters along with hot and dry summers are perceived (Shahriar, Montazeri, Momeni, & Freidooni, 2015).
3.5 Region 5
Three provinces of Golestan, Mazandaran, and Gilan generally covered by the Hyrcanian forests in northern Iran and along the Caspian Sea are included in region 5.
3.5.1 Location and Topography
In general, in this region Alborz Mnts surrounded the coastline and plains around the Caspian Sea and perform as a high barrier in a long distance (Fig. 3.13). The heights of the eastern half of the Alborz range gradually decrease towards the north east. Whereas southern parts of Golestan Province and near the Golestan forest (e.g. Narchy Mount) are high altitude mountains, northern parts are consisted of vast plains with less height which extend to Turkmenistan borderline, while they are cut by the branches of Gorgan and Atrak rivers. Alborz range in its most eastern part reaches Aladagh, Binalud and Hezar-Masjed Mountains in region 1 (National Geographical Organization of Iran, 2011). Golestan National Park located in this region is well known for its rich biodiversity (e.g. Akhani, 1998; Akhani, Djamali, Ghorbanalizadeh, & Ramezani, 2010; Ghorbani, Mohammadi, Darvish, Kami, & Siahsarvie, 2015; Samin & Kesdek, 2014). West of Mazandaran Province consisted of a narrow coastal foothill of mountainous areas. Vast plain of Mazandaran, foothills and the middle heights of the Alborz Range are also located in this province. In the west, Gilan Province is partially located in the Caucasus ecoregion while almost 38.4% of the province’s area is covered by forests (Vahdati, Mehrvarz, Naqinezhad, & Shavvon, 2014). Hyrcanian forests (Fig. 3.14), distributed in the region 5, unlike the forests elsewhere in southern parts of the country, are deciduous forests (Naqinezhad, Hamzeh’ee, & Attar, 2008) remained from Arcto-Tertiary Geoflora with various tree genera (e.g. Pterocarya, Albizia, Parrotia, or Gleditsia) from the ice age (Scharnweber, Rietschel, & Manthey, 2007).
3.5.2 Climate
This region receives the most amount of mean annual precipitation. There are tangible changes in humid temperate Caspian climate in the east of the Caspian Sea and contour of Gorgan River to the border of Turkmenistan. This is mainly because of increasing distance from the Caspian Sea, decreasing height in Eastern Alborz, large coastal plain and getting close to the deserts of Ghareh Ghom and Ghezel Ghom. Thus, the hot and dry condition is gradually intensified and it turns to semi-arid climate with less annual rainfall (see also Soltani et al., 2016). While climate types of semi-arid, semi-desert, and semi-humid are observed in east of the Mazandaran Province (Gholizadeh, 2010), westwards in Gilan Province, plain moderate climate with average annual rainfall of 1200–1300 mm, mountainous climate and semi-arid climate cover various parts of the region. Absolute maximum and absolute minimum temperatures in this area are 34 °C and −7 °C, respectively (Kazemi Rad, Mohammadi, & Teyfoori, 2015).
4 Chapter Connection
For the purpose of conducting the researches presented in the next chapters of this book, a regional classification practice with respect to the natural and socioeconomic characteristics is conducted. The idea behind this classification is the fact that the Persian leopard is widely distributed across the country, however, there is a considerable variability in various parts of this range which may negatively affect further studies such as the countrywide potential habitat distribution modeling. To overcome this obstacle and to have a robust study design, significantly dissimilar regions in terms of natural and socioeconomic factors are identified. Characteristics of each region concerning topography and climate are then described for better understanding of the next research chapters. The regional classification described in the current chapter is also helpful for various large scale research and conservation practices for either the leopard or other wide ranging carnivore species.
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Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge National Geographical Organization, Meteorological Organization, Statistical Center and Department of Environment of Iran for providing the necessary maps and information. Consultant and comments of Dr. Ali Seifzadeh and Dr. Mohamad Roslan Mohamad Kasim are highly appreciated.
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Sanei, A. (2020). Novel Regional Classification of Natural and Socioeconomic Characteristics for the Persian Leopard Research and Conservation Programs. In: Sanei, A. (eds) Research and Management Practices for Conservation of the Persian Leopard in Iran. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28003-1_3
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